A legend in the Alexander Romance claims that Candace of Meroë fought Alexander the Great. In fact, Alexander never attacked Nubia, and never attempted to move further south than the oasis of Siwa in Egypt.
In 25 BC the kandake Amanirenas, as reported by Strabo, attacked the city of Syene, today's Aswan, in territory of the Roman Empire; Emperor Augustus destroyed the city of Napata in retaliation.
Most scholars would dismiss the accounts of Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus as compelling evidence to support the existence of women warriors in Africa, although all three ancient writers have proved accurate in the great majority of their testable observations about life in the centuries before Christ. As time proceeds, the evidence supporting the presence of a tradition of African women warriors grows in its persuasiveness.[citation needed] An impressive series of Nubian warrior queens, queen regents, and queen mothers, known as kentakes (Greek: Candace "Candake"), are only appearing to the light of history through the ongoing deciphering of the Meroitic script. They controlled what is now Sudan, Ethiopia, and parts of Egypt.
Bas-reliefs dated to about 170 B.C. reveal kentakes Shanakdakheto, dressed in armor and wielding a spear in battle. She did not rule as queen regent or queen mother but as a fully independent ruler. Her husband was her consort. In bas-reliefs found in the ruins of building projects she commissioned, Shanakdakheto is portrayed both alone as well as with her husband and son, who would inherit the throne by her death.
The following African queens were known to the Greco-Roman world as the "Candaces": Amanishakhete, Amanitore, Amanirenas, Nawidemak, and Malegereabar.
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However
In 24 BC, at the reign of Queen Amanishekhato, Kushite forces attacked the Roman territory at Aswan. From there, they continued all the way to Thebes and defeated the Roman garrison there. Strabo reported that the Kushite Queen "enslaved the inhabitants, and threw down the statues of Caesar." (Strabo xvii.54). Recent archeological work uncovered a statue of Caesar at Meroe buried under the entrance floor of a temple at Meroe (currently in the British museum, London), and this confirms the authenticity of Strabo's story. (The Kushites believed that stepping over an enemy's depiction, would ultimately mean reducing his dominance.6
According to Strabo, when Petronius - a Prefect of Egypt at the time - was informed about the Kushite advancement he prepared a large army and marched south. The Roman forces clashed with the Kushite armies near Thebes and forced them to retreat to Pselchis (Maharraqa), an Ethiopian (or Kushite) city. Petronius, then, sent deputies to the Kushites to convince them to stop the war and contest to Roman wishes.
Quoting Strabo, the Kushites "desired three days for consideration"7 in order to make a final decision. However after the three days Kush did not respond and Petronius advanced with his armies and took the Kushite city of Premnis (modern Karanog) south of Maharraqa, and from there he advanced all the way to Napata, the second Capital in Kush after Meroe. Petronius attacked and sacked Napata causing the son of the Kushite Queen to flee. Strabo describes the defeat of the Nubians at Napata, stating that "He (Petronius) made prisoners of the inhabitants," and some "were publicly sold as loot, and thousands were sent to Caesar".
This was not the end of the war; the Queen attacked the occupying Roman garrison of Napata, in the words of Strabo, "with an army of many thousand men." The Nubians, however, lost the war. The Kushite Queen then sent messengers to ask Petronius to allow them to speak to the King of Rome. In response, Petronius sent the Kushite messengers to Caesar, who was in Syria at the time. The negotiations in Syria were successful; it is recorded by Strabo that the Caesar "even remitted the tribute which he had imposed (upon the Kushites earlier). "Although not so clearly defined, the Kush-Rome border seemed to have been somewhere in the Dodecaschoenus area.8
Throughout the three centuries of the Roman rule over Egypt, Kush had extensively interacted with Rome as its northern neighbor and vise-versa. Kush and Roman Egypt maintained good relations of trade and politics. In return Rome had a profound effect on the Kushite civilization.
The Roman influence onto Kush was manifested in arts, architecture, and writings. Not only were that, but there is even strong archeological evidence for the existence of a Roman community in Nubia.9 Roman manufactures and products were documented as found in considerable amounts.
The Dendur Temple, MMA, New York.
The Dendur Temple was given to the United States by Egypt in 1965 and is currently housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The temple was built in 15 BC, in honor to the goddess Isis. Motifs and names of the Roman Emperor Augustus are carved and inscribed on the temple walls. Also, are the names and motifs of the two sons of a Kushite queen (Pihor and Pedesi), who participated in building portions of the temple. The Dendur Temple stands as a testament to the peaceful relations Rome and Nubia maintained for the next seven centuries.
quote:Originally posted by zarahan- aka Enrique Cardova: Some of the website info above is misleading or bogus. Claims that the Kushite capital was overrun are open to question. Some scholars do not see penetration beyond the point of Sara ( Derek A. Welsby. 1998. The Kingdom of Kush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empires.)
CLaims that the Kushites "lost" are also questionable. If Stabo is taken at his word, his word is open to query for he was an avowed partisan of ROman commander Petronius. Modern scholarship seems to show more of a stalemate in the conflict- not a Kushite loss with them running to negotiate surrender. ROme seems to have wanted to keep the border quiet and so negotiated as the easiest way out. A dramatic Kushite defeat is not necessary to explain the outcome. See Fluehr- Lobban, RHodes et al. (2004) Race and identity in the Nile Valley: ancient and modern perspectives.
Lastly the website says the "surrender negotiations" took place in Syria. But modern scholarship questions that as well. Rather, as Kushite and Roman forces still maneuvered in the field, Kushite emissaries met with Augustus himself on the Greek island of Samos, where a deal was cut between the contenders. Rome of course still remained dominant in Egypt, but wanted to maintain a quiet border to protect its position there. A peace treaty was in ROman interests, versus another drawn-out inconclusive war. The treaty absolved the Kushites of paying any tribute to Rome, and ceded a 30-40 mile buffer strip to the Kushites, off-limits to Roman troops. Roman emperor Augustus also remitted any tribute paid. The emperor marked the agreement by directing his people to collaborate with local priests in the erection of a temple at Dendur.
see: Robert B. Jackson. 2002. At Empire's Edge: Exploring Rome's Egyptian Frontier. p. 140-156
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Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt ... By László Török 2009 Posts: 42939 | From: , | Registered: Jan 2010
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quote- Many pyramids were built in Meroë during this period and the kingdom consisted of an impressive standing military force. Strabo also describes a clash with the Romans in which the Romans were defeated by Nubian archers under the leadership of a "one-eyed" (blind in one eye) queen.
African military systems to 1800 Sudanic fighting forces versus Persian, Roman and Islamic forces Foreign invasions (Assyrians, Greeks, Romans and Arabs) were to bring an end to the great dynastic era of Egypt. However the prowess of the Sudanic infantry (variously known in writings as 'Kushites', 'Ethiopians', 'Nubians', 'Napthans' or 'Meroeites'), still made a distinctive mark in the region, and beyond, especially the archers. Several strong polities arose in the southern Nile Valley after the decline of the pharaonic period, ushering in the eras of Kush, Christian Nubia and other smaller groupings. Besides a process of internal conflict, fighting men from this region were to clash with several major external enemies - the legions of Rome, the armies of Persia, and the forces of expansionist Islam.
Bowmen were the most important force component. Ancient sources indicate that the Sudanic archers favored one-piece bows that were between six and seven feet long, with so powerful a draw strength that many of the archers used their feet to bend their bows. Although composite types saw some use, the Greek historian Herodotus (circa 450-420BC) indicates primary bow construction was of seasoned palm wood, with the arrows made of cane. Other sources describe intense encounters between African archers and the Persians, with accurate volleys of fire not only decimating Persian ranks, but targeting the eyes of individual Persian warriors. Such fighting men were not an uncommon sight on battlefields or royal courts throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East. There is some indication that the arrows of Sudanic bowmen (including those fighting Rome) were often poison-tipped, a technique used elsewhere by Africa's archers, well into the 19th century. Among the Meriotic forces facing Rome, elephants were still occasionally used in war. Later Sudanic based forces like the Blemmye also deployed horses and camels for their raids over the Egyptian frontier, and the poisoned arrow tactics of their predecessors found ready employment.
Sudanic forces versus Persian armies The Persian Cambyses II invasion of Egypt (circa 525 BC) yielded a decisive victory at the battle of Pelusium, routing Egyptian forces, capturing Memphis and taking the Egyptian ruler Psammetichus captive. These rapid Persian successes however stalled when Cambyses moved further south to attack the Kingdom of Kush. Logistical difficulties in crossing desert terrain were compounded by the fierce response of the Kushite armies, particularly accurate volleys of archery that not only decimated Persian ranks, but targeted the eyes of individual Persian warriors. One historical source notes:
"So from the battlements as though on the walls of a citadel, the archers kept up with a continual discharge of well aimed shafts, so dense that the Persians had the sensation of a cloud descending upon them, especially when the Ethiopians made their enemies; eyes the targets.. SO unerring was their aim that those who they pierced with their shafts rushed about wildly in the throngs with the arrows projecting from their eyes like dcouble flutes."
One Kushite ruler is recorded as taunting Persian spies with the gift of a bow, inviting the Persian armies to return when they found strength enough to draw the weapon. Stymied by the Kushites, the Persians were forced to withdraw in failure.
Nubian/Kushite forces versus Roman legions The Roman conquest of Egypt put it on a collision course with the Sudanic powers of the southern regions. Kushite forces undertook a preemptive strike into Egypt, penetrating as far south as the Aswan area, conquering Syene, Elephantine and Philae, and overthrowing recently erected bronze statutes of Augustus erected there. The head of one of these Augustian bronzes was carried off to Meroe as a trophy. Rome dispatched new forces under Publius Petronius to confront the Kushites, and the European and African armies commenced a period of back and forth hostilities. The legions launched numerous attacks into Kushite territory, which were matched by Kushite counterattacks. Rome built forts at Qasr Ibrim and the Kushites retaliated by raiding other Roman garrisons. A massive Roman invasion circa 24BC caused severe losses for the Kushites at Dakka, but the overall campaign was inconclusive. Some Roman sources claim to have penetrated to Napta, the Kushite capital, but a number of modern historians dispute this, since archaeological evidence is thin beyond the point of Sara. WHatever the actual limit of Roman advance however, a legion pullback saw a Kushite resurgence just three years later, with strong reinforcements of African troops from further south. Kushite pressure now once more advanced. The Roman commander Petronius again mobilized reinforcements and the African and European armies maneuvered in battle array for a showdown at Premnis, the largest major Roman garrison in the region.
Historical sources are vague on whether an actual battle took place. The fact that a powerful Roman force paused to parley, suggests a political decision, or military necessity brought on by a stalemate- with final outcomes that saw major concessions being granted to an enemy of Rome. Actual fighting was avoided and/or stopped by negotiations, and the Meroitic diplomats were invited to confer with the Roman emperor himself on the Greek island of Samos where he was headquartered temporarily. Roman interests appeared focused on maintaining a quiet southern border in Egypt, and during negotiations they eventually ceded Qasr Ibrim [and areas north of Qasr Ibrim in the southern portion of the "Thirty-Mile Strip"] to the Kushites ca. 22–21 BC, signing a peace treaty with the latter on Samos. The treaty absolved the Kushites of paying any tribute to Rome, and made the buffer zone off-limits to Roman troops. Roman emperor Augustus marked the agreement by directing his administrators ot collaborate with local priests in the erection of a temple at Dendur.
Nubian/Kushite forces versus Arab forces The third major opponent to confront the fighting men of Nubia was the Arabs, who had overrun Egypt and large parts of the Mideast. For almost 600 years, the powerful bowmen of the region created a barrier for Muslim expansion into the northeast of the African continent, fighting off multiple invasions and assaults with stinging swarms of arrows. One modern historian (Ayalon 2000) likens Nubian resistance to that of a dam, holding back the Muslim tide for several centuries. According to Ayalon:
The absolutely unambiguous evidence and unanimous agreement of the early Muslim sources is that the Arabs abrupt stop was caused solely and exclusively by the superb military resistance of the Christian Nubians. .. the Nubian Dam. The array of those early sources includes the two most important chronicles of early Islam, al-Tabari (d. 926) and al-Yaqubi (d. 905); the two best extant books on the Muslim conquests, al-Baladhuri (d. 892) and Ibn al-A tham al-Kufi (d. 926); the most central encyclopedic work of al-Masudi (d.956); and the two best early sources dedicated specifically to Egypt, Ibn Abd al-Hakim (d. 871) and al-Kindi (961).. All of the above-cited sources attribute Nubian success to their superb archery.. To this central factor should be added the combination of the Nubians' military prowess and Christian zeal; their acquaintance of the terrain; the narrowness of the front line that theuy had to defend; and, quite possibly, the series of cataracts situated at their back, and other natural obstacles.. The Nubians fought the Muslims very fiercely. WHen they encountered them they showered them with arrows, until all of they were wounded and they withdrew with many wounds and gouged eyes. Therefore they were called "the marksmen of the eye."
Yet another notes:
The awe and respect that the Muslims had for their Nubian adversaries are reflected in the fact that even a rather late Umayyad caliph, Umar b Abd al- Aziz (Umar II 717-720), is said to have ratified the Nubian-Muslim treaty out of fear for the safety of the Muslims (he ratified the peace treaty out of consideration for the Muslims and out of [a desire] to spare their lives.. The Nubians constituted an "African front" that barred Islam's spread, along with others in Central Asia, India and the Anatolian/Mediterranean zone. Whereas the Ialamic military expansion began with swift conquests across Byzantium, Central Asia, the Maghrib and Spain, such quick triumphs foundered at the Sudanic barrier. Internal divisions, along with infiltration by nomads were to weaken the "Nubian dam" however and eventually it gave way to Muslim expansion from Egypt and elsewhere in the region.
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The misleading part starts at the division of a so called Nubia and Egypt. While "Nubia" Southern Egypt.
Posts: 22243 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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