The rulers of the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Romans were contemporaries with the Meroitic Period. In the third century BC, they maintained friendly relations. From the end of the 3rd century to the middle of the 2nd century BC, the Ptolemies occupied a part of Nubia that they called Dodekaschoinos, which was in the Northern part of Lower Nubia (from Aswan to Maharaqa). In this area they built many important temples such as Philae, Kalabsha, Dakka, etc. In 30 BC, the Ptolemies were replaced by the Romans. Mummy Koshtamna, Nubia Statue of Roman Soldier , Philae, Nubia http://www.numibia.net/nubia/ptolemies.asp
>"Jewish Life in Ancient Egypt: A Family Archive from the Nile Valley" >Edward Bleiberg, PhD, Brooklyn Museum of Art >Thursday, April 29, 2004, 6:30pm >Mary Gates Hall, Room 389, University of Washington campus >Admission: FREE. > >About the Presentation > >This presentation focuses on the private lives of the Jewish temple official Ananiah, son of Azariah, and his Egyptian wife, Tamut, who both lived on Elephantine Island in the late 5th century BCE during Persian rule. Included in the discussion are the arrival of Jews in Egypt after the destruction of Solomons Temple and the type of Judaism they practiced. >Ananiah and Tamuts family life is discussed from their marriage in 447 BCE to the final payment on their daughters bride gift in 402 BCE. In-between these events we learn about marriage, labor conditions, real estate, and burial in a multi-cultural community of Egyptians, Jews and Persians. > >About the Speaker > >Edward Bleiberg is Associate Curator in the Department of Egyptian, Classical and Ancient Middle Eastern Art at the Brooklyn Museum of Art. He earned his PhD from the University of Toronto in Egyptology. He is organizing the tour for the exhibition Jewish Life in Ancient Egypt and is the author of The Official Gift in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Egypt 2615-332 BCE, and the exhibition catalog Jewish Life in Ancient Egypt. > >Cosponsors >The Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilization, the Jewish Studies Program, the Comparative Religion Program, and the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture. > > >For further information contact: > >Scott Noegel >Dept. Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations >University of Washington >Box 353120 >Seattle, WA 98195 > >Office: 206-543-3606 >Dept: 206-543-6033 >FAX: 206-685-7936 >http://faculty.washington.edu/snoegel/ ===================================================
Bahri Mamluks A succession of strong Mamluk sultans, originally Mamluk slaves based on barracks in Rhoda Island and hence named Bahri (Arabic for river), who took over control of Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1382 A.D. Their reign was characterized by relative stability and prosperity on the internal arena and powerful military control on the external level defeating enemy threats. http://www.aucegypt.edu/walking_tours/cairo/glossary/glossary.html
From the cemetary at Mallawi [near Beni Suef] which was once the location of a Roman garrison. Page 45
Rosalie David Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt ================================================== Minshah (Ptolemais)
In Graeco-Roman times the city of Ptolemais, in Middle Egypt, was the second or third most important city in Egypt. The remain of Ptolemais are now buried under the modern town of Minshah, but even on the modern rubbish dump remains of the ancient city can be found, like this pillar fragment: Not only on the rubbish dump, but everywhere in Minshah remnants of its former glory can be seen poking through the surface, as is true for many places in Egypt. Here two different types of grinding-stones can be seen laying in one of the squares of the town with a decorated pillar capital lurking in the background:
Objective of visit: To evaluate the possibilities for archaeological fieldwork in Minshah (Ptolemais). Date of visit: February 2002. Fellow visitors: Willeke Wendrich. Results: A concise report and photo-CD. Approximate position and date of the site: Minshah is located in Middle Egypt, on the west bank of the Nile about 15 km. south of Sohag and 120 km. north of Luxor. The remains of Ptolemais, once one of the most important cities in Egypt, are covered completely by this modern village. Literary sources indicate that the ancient city must date to at least the Ptolemaic period (3rd century BC - 1st century AD), but it was probably also active before and after that. Short description of the site: Minshah is a small town with narrow, unpaved streets. Most older buildings are nicely designed and well maintained and the streets are kept very clean. The higher, central parts of the town (the kom or tell) are littered with ancient worked stones, often moved to the corners of buildings to protect them from the traffic in the street. In other places ancient remains can still be seen in situ. Additional remarks: This work would not have been possible without the indirect support of the Berenike Project http://www.archbase.com/berenike/index.html and the help of several individuals, among which Joe Manning. HOME http://www.barnard.nl/fotos.htmlhttp://www.barnard.nl/egypt/index.htmlhttp://www.barnard.nl/egypt/index.htmlhttp://www.barnard.nl/fotos.htmlhttp://www.barnard.nl/fotos.html BACK http://www.barnard.nl/egypt/index.htmlhttp://www.barnard.nl/egypt/minshah.htm
The mile-wide necropolis falls mostly within the present village of Qurna,inhabited by the desendants of Horobat warrior who have arrived to settle there in the thirteenth century as tomb robbers,an occupation many still follow.
In addition to roman high officals,occupying the important administrative posts in Alexzandria and in the larger towns,and to more numerous mirrior functionannes,one must also distinguish from the indigenous populations the Greeks,established in Egypt before the Ptolomies,and the war veterns. often of diverse origins to whom lands had been granted . Some of these latter,at Faiyum or Antione,may have been Romans;others ---as for example ;at Ahnas El medinehin Upper Egypt--originally came from Palmyra. All brought with them their own customs ,and doubtless their own relgions,which can be idenitfied ,even when became intergrated with the relgions of the country,as is evident at Ahnas El Medineh;
1. E. Drioton 'Art syrien et art copte;B.S.A.C. III 1937 ,pp 29-40
page 72 Du Bourguet, Pierre M., The Art of the Copts. Art of the World series, New York, Crown Publishers, 1971. ===================================================
Arab colonization began with the conquest ,and was encouraged by the Ummayyad Caliphs,notably by Hisham[reigned 724-43],who in 727 authorized the planned migration and settlement of several thousand Arabs of the Yemenite tribe of Qays in the Nile Valley. During the eight century and ninth century large numbers of Arab tribesmen,mainly of Yemenite origin,migrate to Egypt,where many of them settled on land. page 457
Harris, J R, ed. (1971) The legacy of Egypt. Oxford ===================================================
One old man with long hair and a white beard ,who had been a member of the local community of foreign Christains which had established itself near the temple of Philae,is the oldest example and one of the best illustrations of a case of gout;enormous whitish concretions of urate of lime had gathered on his feet,especially round his big toe and also at the ankle ,while chalky ,masses could still be seen deforming his knee-caps and ankles.
page 43
Ange-Pierre Leca: The Egyptian Way of Death: Mummies and the Cult of the Immortal Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1981. Reveals the beliefs, techniques and rituals comprising the elaborate process of mummification. 292 pages
But more importantly he was able to idenity at Nebeira the site of the ancient city of Naucratis ,which in the reign of Amasis in the Twenty-six Dyansty[570-526 B.C.] had been granted a monopoly of Greek trading in Egypt.
page 33
Ancient Egypt
The Land and Legacy T.G.H. James
copyright @ 1988
First Unversity of Texas Press Paperback Printing,1990 ==================================================
Glazed from the decorative scheme used probabaly in the throne room of the palace of King Rameses III at Tell el-Yahudiya. It shows a bound Libyan captive.
page 30
Ancient Egypt
The Land and Legacy T.G.H. James
copyright @ 1988
First Unversity of Texas Press Paperback Printing,1990 ==================================================
There is another good reason for pausing at Kom Aushim;it is the site of one of the many towns founded in the Faiyum province during the Ptolemaic Period. here at Karanis it is still possible to walk along streets,to step into houses,to saunter in squares,as one can never do in the Nile valley itself. For this was a town which fell into disuse and was abandoned in the later Roman Period,to be revealed in modern times by excavations of the Unversity of Michigan.Like its foundation here and elsewhere in Egypt,Karanis was essentially a Greek-speaking towns. On its hieght at Kom Aushim,Karanis lies approximatley at sea-leavel,but when it was founded,like man of its fellow,it lay on the edge of the lake ,which at that time was about six feet below sea-level. it
page 61
Ancient Egypt
The Land and Legacy T.G.H. James
copyright @ 1988
First Unversity of Texas Press Paperback Printing,1990 ===================================================
A substantial Greek-speaking community exised in Men-nefer,and a number of mummies incorporating potraits and of portraits taken from mummies have been found at Saqqara;they probably present us with the closest we may ever get to the likeness of Memphites.
page
58
Ancient Egypt
The Land and Legacy T.G.H. James
copyright @ 1988
First Unversity of Texas Press Paperback Printing,1990 ==================================================
Although at the end of the Dyanstic period and in Graeco-Roman times Saqarra was a bustling place throughout the year with constant pilgrimages to many shrines ,were troubled souls sought comfort from the mysteries and incubation treatments available and processions and very occasionally an Apis funeral as special entertainment,the district was also probably rather ran down suffering from the excessive usage of almost three thousand years. To some extent its bustle its bustle reflected the busy life of the city of Men- nefer,which remained the most important centre of commerce and administration untill it was supersededby Alexzandria. It was huge,amorphus,rambling place,with large ''ghettoes'' made over for foregin communities---for Greeks,for Jews,for Carians,for Phonecians.Apart from itws temples it probabaly had few imposing buildings,and was mostly made up of warren-like districts of narrow streets and three-storey houses where collapse and rebuilding went on continuously:unsanitary,smelly,dusty or muddy according to the season,but full of life and interest.
page 46
Ancient Egypt
The Land and Legacy T.G.H. James
copyright @ 1988
First Unversity of Texas Press Paperback Printing,1990
Al-Qahira Literally meaning "the Victorious" , al-Qahira was Egypt's fourth Islamic capital after al-Fustat, al-Askar and al-Qataii. Al-Qahira is today called Cairo among English speakers. The fortified princely city built by the Fatimids in 969 A.D. and completed in 971 A.D. was divided in four quarters by the Fatimid army, and encompassing communities of Greeks, ethnic Europeans, Armenians, Berbers, Sudanese and Turks. The core of the city Bayn al-Qasrayn ("Between the Two Palaces") was a square separating the Eastern and Western palace that was halfway along its main street (Now Sharia al-Muizz - Walk 1) that stretched from Bab al-Futuh North to Bab Zuwayla South. http://www.aucegypt.edu/walking_tours/cairo/glossary/glossary.html
Ottomans Western Asian tribes of Turkomen who besieged Costantinople and established themselves as a powerful empire in present day Turkey during the 15th century. The Ottoman Regime in Egypt went on from 1517 to 1800 A.D. Egypt, governed by a succession of appointed viceroys who bore the title "Pasha", became a dependent province on the greater Turkish empire in Istanbul.
Burgi Mamluks (Circassian) The turbulent Circassian Mamluk regime that took over the Bahri Mamluks from 1382 to 1517 A.D. was also known as Burgi Mamluk since they were based in the towers (Burg) of the Citadel. The reign was characterized by epidemic outbreaks, heavy taxation to make up for the decline in revenues that followed the discovery of a new trade route to India. ===================================================
James Wellard, in _Lost Worlds of Africa_ believes that "millions" of European slaves were brought into N. Egyptian and other N. African ports during the Muslim period. Add to this the migrations of Greeks, Latins, Vandals, etc., and you get a very mixed lot ===================================================
''.......The equation of 'Copt' with 'Christain' is only valid in Egypt after the Arab conquest. Up to that time many monuments were of Christain inspiration,but on one hand numerous Coptic Fellaheen and other Egyptians were still pagans,and on the other hand many Greek residents ,for example,perhaps pagans themselves,had become assimilated to the autochtthonous population,especially in Middle and Upper Egypt........'''
page 20
Art of the World
P.M. Du Bourghet
The Art of the Copts
[This message has been edited by ausar (edited 27 June 2004).]
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Most assimilated into Egyptian soceity. Ancient Egyptians had ways to incorporate certain aspects of other cultures into the already existing mainstream culture.
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supercar
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quote:Originally posted by neo*geo: Egyptians have always managed to absorb foriegners. Do you know why this is ausur?
This is one of the things that have set AE apart from other Civilizations of time, accepting foreigners even as rulers. As has been said previously on this board, Egyptians saw themselves superior (in a socio-political sense rather than physical) to others, which means the code of conduct. As long as foreigners adopted their law of the land, they were welcomed. In other words, whatever your nationality, as long as you converted to Egyptian and followed their customs, you were seen Egyptian. This in some ways, was done to strengthen the empire or dynasty, because now you have more people on your side, conducting themselves as Egyptians, and seeing Egyptian enemies as their enemies!
[This message has been edited by supercar (edited 26 June 2004).]
posted
This is like saying West Africans accepted colonization, because they foreign rulers and hence appreciated them for adapting their African customs.
Egypt was conquered, and that took place namely by military force. And I'm sure the average Egyptian had no choice other than to surrender to their authority, like it or not.
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Originally posted by Supercar In other words, whatever your nationality, as long as you converted to Egyptian and followed their customs, you were seen Egyptian.
I seriously doubt the Egyptians "converted" the Arab conquerers to Islam, or "converted" the Roman Conquerers to Christianity. They were seen as Egyptians because they colonized Egypt. The same way European are seen as South Africans, instead of Europeans, and the same for the Austrailians, and Americans..you get the point.
Posts: 747 | From: Atlanta, GA USA | Registered: May 2004
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quote:I seriously doubt the Egyptians "converted" the Arab conquerers to Islam, or "converted" the Roman Conquerers to Christianity. They were seen as Egyptians because they colonized Egypt. The same way European are seen as South Africans, instead of Europeans, and the same for the Austrailians, and Americans..you get the point.
Supercar,was talking about prior to the Arabic invasion into Egypt.
Most historians would have you believe the indigenous Upper Egyptians just allowed everybody to invade them without much resistance. The Upper Egyptians especially around the area of modern Luxor fought the Ptolomeics to the point that many pharoahs independtly ruled from modern day Luxor in Upper Egypt. The resistance to rebel invaders is well documented in the texts of the Demotic Chroncile and the Potter's Oracle.
Previously,a rogue pharoah named Khabash from Upper Egypt over threw the Persian rule for about a year. Persians soon seized his throne and resumed rulership.
The Christain population in Egypt which consituted mostly of foreginers easily gave up to the invading Arabs. The indigenous Fellahin in the countryside continued for ages doing the same thing most have up even untill today.Most of the Arabs ruled from Al-Fustat while the peasents were nearly taxed to death. Some had to sell their children into slavery the taxiation was so terrible. Many revolts occured in Upper and Lower Egypt in the rural countryside.
Posts: 8675 | From: Tukuler al~Takruri as Ardo since OCT2014 | Registered: Feb 2003
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supercar
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quote:Originally posted by homeylu: This is like saying West Africans accepted colonization, because they foreign rulers and hence appreciated them for adapting their African customs.
Egypt was conquered, and that took place namely by military force. And I'm sure the average Egyptian had no choice other than to surrender to their authority, like it or not.
Actually you totally missed my point. In fact, I was implying the opposite. In my comment, when I said Egyptians accepted foreign people who converted to Egyptian and adopted the Egyptian customs, I was talking about mainly captives or foreign slaves, and to some extent foreign traders. In those times, in Egypt if those foreigners followed Egyptian code of conduct, and worked their way up to high level positions (perhaps even as a Pharaoh), they were respected as "Egyptians". This was the point I was trying to make, without going into detail. As you know, after some time Egyptians integrated captives into the society and even on occasions granted them land. This is different from the comparison you made of South Africa, Australia, and so forth. In those countries, the conquerors became rulers, but they never adopted the customs of the defeated people. In fact, they forced the defeated population to adopt to their rules, not the other way around. In Egypt, before the decline of the dynastic period, like Ausur correctly observed, the foreign leader was only welcomed so long as he/she was Egyptian not only in name, but also in his/her beliefs and customs.
posted
Well thanks for clearing up that you both are speaking of dynastic period, as it was not clear before since Ausur posted periods leading all the way up to the the Christian era.
[This message has been edited by homeylu (edited 27 June 2004).]
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The rulers of the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Romans were contemporaries with the Meroitic Period. In the third century BC, they maintained friendly relations. From the end of the 3rd century to the middle of the 2nd century BC, the Ptolemies occupied a part of Nubia that they called Dodekaschoinos, which was in the Northern part of Lower Nubia (from Aswan to Maharaqa). In this area they built many important temples such as Philae, Kalabsha, Dakka, etc. In 30 BC, the Ptolemies were replaced by the Romans. Mummy Koshtamna, Nubia Statue of Roman Soldier , Philae, Nubia -------------------------------------------------
there is a book out with some recent info on this. it mentions that the romans had co-rulership with the kushites after thier first war.of course other books mention later too that the kushites and a couple of more wars with rome too and they took all of the northern part.kush ahd control again over this region again before the romans came in.
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It's always interesting to me how the darker Egyptians with the so-called "kinky" hair are always referred to as Nubian, whilst the lighter "white" or almost white Egyptians are never referred to as Libyan or anything foreign, even though the Egyptians clearly depict the differences between foreigners and themselves.
You would think this way of categorizing whites in Egyptian society would have changed by now, but I suppose noting the white Egyptians could possibly be just as foreign as the "Nubians" would by extension note that ALL whites in Egypt would therefore be foreigners as they try to suggest with black Egyptians.
I haven't come across anyone in the scholarly field debunk the whiteness of Egypt in a statement or even suggest that whites could have been foreign even though 98% of Egyptian accounts suggest that the general population was non white.
Hawass himself has discredited the Arab and the black claim, but has no comment on the whiteness or lack thereof of the Egyptians. Is this by default leaving open the possibility of them being therefore European (white) when he would make such ludicrous claims as they were not black or African but make no mention of the fact they were not whites?
When classifying the skull as Tutankhamen they refused to note that the skull could not have belonged to a white man, but they noted the European influence of the nose, whereas the rest of the skull was typical of blacks living along the East and Northern parts of Africa, though we are all familiar with the one drop rule and could easily rule him out as a mix, he still has a larger amount of non European skeletal makeup than he does European, therefore possibly having very little European admixture if any, assuming his nasal features were not indigenous of blacks. They still preferred to categorize him by geography instead of calling him "black", therefore leaving it open for speculation by the dense white supremacist who would say something as arguably silly as "they never actually said he was black so he must have been white".
Have we forgotten simple Geography where pyramid building of Upper Egypt gradually shows progress going towards lower Egypt near the Mediterranean sea, further to the notion that Egyptian must have been a a migration from the south? Have we forgotten the discoveries of Nubia which predate Upper Egypt by some 3000 years? What about the cultural influences which are echoed throughout Africa and have no identity in Europe and very little in Asia?
It's time more non whites,blacks especially find their way into the Egyptology elite, there is still an obvious bias in the field.
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when has foriegners comen into tha Holy Land been POSITIVE ??
if it wasnt brute force, it was trickery behind a smile and the "lets make friends attitude".... same as NOW... but being a people who live by our heart we took our enemies intentions as geniuine...
quote:It's always interesting to me how the darker Egyptians with the so-called "kinky" hair are always referred to as Nubian, whilst the lighter "white" or almost white Egyptians are never referred to as Libyan or anything foreign, even though the Egyptians clearly depict the differences between foreigners and themselves.
To conquer this fraud discourse you *must* stop repeating the fallacious terms of Eurocentrists.
There is no *nubian* people in Kemetic history.
In Eurocentric pseudo-history Nubian is an apolegia term for anything undeniably Black African.
If you doubt the purely racist nature of this - ask Nubian-ologists to identify the Black African Egyptians.
For them, there are *not any*, not one, nor can there be any - since to identify Black - is to identify Nubian and therefore *disqualify Egyptian.*
You can't debunk white-supremacy while accepting it's core propaganda points as the framework for the debate.
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^ and for years, I along with Wally and a few others have struggled to explain this to brainwashed Africanist scholars, who repeat after Eurocentrist propaganda, no matter how illogical and twisted it may be.
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In Eurocentric pseudo-history Nubian is an apolegia term for anything undeniably Black African.
If you doubt the purely racist nature of this - ask Nubian-ologists to identify the Black African Egyptians.
For them, there are *not any*, not one, nor can there be any - since to identify Black - is to identify Nubian and therefore *disqualify Egyptian.*
They might say something to the tune of "well sure, there were of course plenty of nubians in, but Egyptians weren't nubians, the majority of nubians were concentrated in the South of Egypt, and to the South of Egypt."
^^That's on a good day.
Other times, you might get: "the Egyptians were not Nubians"
And hence, when you show them an undeniably (even for them) black Kemetian they, as you said, designate him as a Nubian, and hence not a Kemetian.
quote:to identify Nubian and therefore *disqualify Egyptian.*
^In this reguard Eurcentrism has lost all credibility. I could post citations concerning their affinities with their Southern neighbors to this reguard.
On the subject of the thread header, a few interesting quotes:
"Did Egyptians of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods differ significantly from their dynastic antecedents?
Again, more postdynastic samples would prove useful in answering this broad question. Moreover, any foreign genetic influence on the indigenous populace likely diminished relative to the distance upriver. However, as it stands, the lone Greek Egyptian (GEG) sample from Lower Egypt significantly differs from all but the small Roman-period Kharga sample (Table 4). In fact, it was shown to be a major outlier that is divergent from all others (Figs. 2, 3, 5). The Greek Egyptians exhibit the lowest frequencies of UM1 cusp 5, three-rooted UM2, fivecusped LM2, and two-rooted LM2, along with a high incidence of UM3 absence, among others (Table 2). This trait combination is reminiscent of that in Europeans and western Asians (Turner, 1985a; Turner and Markowitz, 1990; Roler, 1992; Lipschultz, 1996; Irish, 1998a). Thus, if the present heterogeneous sample is at all representative of peoples during Ptolemaic times, it may suggest some measure of foreign admixture, at least in Lower Egypt near Saqqara and Manfalut. Another possibility is that the sample consists of actual Greeks." - Joel Irish 2006.
Berry, A.C., & Berry, R.J., 1972, ‘Origins and Relationships of the Ancient Egyptians, Based on the Study of Non-Metrical Variations in the Skull’, Journal of Human Evolution, 1, 1972: 199-206; p.203
"...STABILITY and HOMOGENEITY persisted right through the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and breaks down only in the New Kingdom period, when we know from many sources that there was considerable infiltration into the Nile Valley."
"Cosmopolitan northern Egypt is less likely to have a population representative of the core indigenous population of the most ancient times".- Keita (2005), pp. 564
quote:Originally posted by AMR1: Egypt for the last 10000 years is the same Egypt, today and the past.
Dude are you sure about that?
quote:The population of ancient Egypt varied greatly during its history. Some scholars estimate that only a few hundred thousand people lived in Egypt during the Predynastic period (about 5000-3000 bc). Others believe, based on archaeological evidence and reevaluations of how many people the floodplains could support at the time, that the area had a much higher population. In any case, the population had probably risen to close to 2 million during the Old Kingdom (about 2575-2134 bc). It increased during the Middle Kingdom (about 2040-1640 bc), and by the New Kingdom (about 1550-1070 bc) the population had grown to between 3 and 4 million. This figure almost doubled under Hellenistic rule (332-30 bc), with perhaps as many as 7 million people inhabiting the country at the time it was annexed to the Roman Empire.
2 million to 7 million? But that's not all ..
quote:The most obvious feature of Egypt's population problem is the continued increase in the population growth rate. Our numbers have doubled from 2.5 million in 1800 to 5 million in 1850, then to 10 million in 1900, and again to 20 million in 1947. This means that the Egyptian population has doubled once every fifty years over one and half centuries (1800-1950). It took a mere 30 years for the number to double the fourth time around: from 20 million in 1950 to 40 million in 1978. The increase resumed again until the population reached nearly sixty million, according to the 1996 census. Finally by January, 2006, Egypt`s population had reached nearly 71.348 million inhabitants and is expected to continue rising throughout the 21st century.
Egypt's current population, at least as of 1996, is over 58.5 million.
The majority of Kmtwy were upper Egyptians.
The majority of Egypt's population today are in Lower Egypt.
The people are still there, but their language and culture have been replaced.
quote:Originally posted by AMR1: Egypt for the last 10000 years is the same Egypt, today and the past.
Bad comment. ( )
Especially if Egypt's population really did double under Hellenistic rule.
The Greeks even barred native Egyptians from going in certain areas and palaces in the Delta, and this is around the same time that Alexander the Great's army is pillaging and raping.
posted
Below quotes by European Historians On the Fellaheen of Egypt and Sinai Contrasted to the Turks and Copts until the 19th Century. In the 19th century and in the centuries previous European visitors to from the 19th century and before commonly contrasted the dark brown, “half-naked” and indigenous Fellaheen agriculturalists with the fair or pale-complexioned Turks dressed in robes and furs that had entered the country I large numbers. Today most natives of the United Arab Republic of Eygpt consider themselves (thanks to European colonials) representative of the indigenous people of ancient Egypt . However, it is clear that less than a century ago this was not the case. Most of the agriculturalists in Egypt had absorbed for centuries the incoming Bedouins of the Arabian peninsula who were evidently of the same color as the indigenous Egyptians as well as large numbers of slaves in early days from Asia and later mostly African and Slavic. On the other hand Turks in the 18th through 20th centuries made up a rather significant portion of Egypt ’s major cities and their descendants remain representative of the upper class of Egypt .
1845 - A traveling lawyer from the mid 19th century Dawson Borrer wrote of, “gaunt brown fellahs half unclad, women wrapped up in scanty unwashed garments… with their faces daubed in curious devices of blue paint… and naked children…” from A Journey from Naples to Jerusalem, by Way of Athens, Egypt and the Peninsula of Sinai…” p. 90 by Dawson Borrer, Esquire translation by M. Linant de Bellefonde.
1860s - Lucie A. Duff Gordon wrote of the appearance of Turkish Mamluk soldiers in Egypt that were fair and blue-eyed who “contrast curiously with the brown Fellaheen.” Gordon In Letters from Egypt 1863-1865 by p. 351-352 published by Elibron Classics in 2001.
1861 - William Henry Bartlett - “The streets swarm with Turks in splendid many-coloured robes, half naked brown skinned Arabs…” The Nile Boat, Or Glimpses of the Land of Egypt by William Henry Bartlett 1861 p. A. Hall, Virtue and Co.
From 1867A.D. - by Egyptologist Champollion-Figeac - “The first tribes that inhabited Egypt that is, the Nile Valley between the Syene cataracts and the sea, came from Abyssinia to Sennar. The ancient Egyptians belonged to a race quite similar to the Kennous or Barabras, present inhabitants of Nubia. In the Copts of Egypt we do not find any of the characteristic features of the ancient Egyptian population. The Copts are the result of crossbreeding with all the nations that have successively dominated Egypt . It is wrong to seek in them the principal features of the old race.” From Letters published by Champollion-Figeac
1870 – Samuel Sharpe on city of Alexandria in 1870, “…the poor of the city, as of old are the half naked brown-skinned Fellahs.” in The History of Egypt : From the Earliest Times ‘Til the Conquest of the Arabs Vol. II, p. 386, London : George Bell and Sons 1885.
1878 - On the nile at Farshut “the swarms of brown Fellaheen” are described in A Thousand Miles Up the Nile by Amelia Ann Blanford Edwards Vol. I 1878. p. 150 published by
1875 - The Fellaheen are described “chocolate brown” in the text, Contributions to the Ethnology of Egypt in the Journal of Anthropological Institute of Great Britiain and Ireland , Vol. 4, 1875, pp. 223-254
1879 - “If you have no wind you lie in the river and watch the idle flapping of the sail and the crowd of black and brown fellahs howling for baksheesh…” from Around the World with General Grant : A Narrative of the Visit of General U.S. Grant, Ex-President of the United States to Various Countries in Europe , Asia and Africa in 1877, 1878, 1879 published by John Russell Young, Volume I 1879.
1899 - About the city of Cairo and it’s fair-skinned Turks and its native Arab fellaheen “east of this line 500,000 brown skinned Arabs are living in the quaintest and most delightful, but at the same time dirtiest and most dilapidated streets.. Cairo has a population of some 600,000 inhabitants” p. 74 from The Redemption fo Egypt by William Basil Worsfold published in 1899 by G. Allen. -------- 14 August 2002, Issue No. 598, Cairo , AL -AHRAM
2002 - The Muslim News Online concerning upper class in Egypt and continued treatment of the darker or brown Egyptians: “… racial prejudice is not exclusively directed at those from sub-Saharan Africa. Upper class Egyptians, often fairer than their poorer compatriots, invariably look down on lower class Egyptians who tend to be darker in complexion. There is a subtle correlation between lower income and darker complexion. The Egyptian upper classes and elites tend to be noticeably lighter in complexion than their poorer and working class compatriots. "They labour in the sun," is sometimes the cynical explanation.” Retrieved two August 27, 2008.
-------------------- D. Reynolds-Marniche Posts: 4226 | From: New Jersey, USA | Registered: Mar 2007
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Ausar, I just came to know last year that some Egyptians have originated from Somalia as recently as at the time of Sultan Barquq. According to Coptic historical document, these Somalis are member of great Darod clan of Somalia and their number is between 3 to 5 million. They are known as Jabartis. There are also some Aswanians who have been identified as Somalis of the Hawiye clan, through DNA test and they seem to have been brought to Egypt as slaves.Their arrival there might not be before the 15th century and I have no idea their number. What do you know about these people?.specially the last group the Aswanian Somalis?.Do you know any books that have been written about them?.
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quote:Originally posted by Khadary: Ausar, I just came to know last year that some Egyptians have originated from Somalia as recently as at the time of Sultan Barquq. According to Coptic historical document, these Somalis are member of great Darod clan of Somalia and their number is between 3 to 5 million. They are known as Jabartis. There are also some Aswanians who have been identified as Somalis of the Hawiye clan, through DNA test and they seem to have been brought to Egypt as slaves. Their arrival there might not be before the 15th century and I have no idea their number. What do you know about these people?.specially the last group the Aswanian Somalis?.Do you know any books that have been written about them?.
I am somewhat cautious of these claims. It sounds like another excuse for people to explain away the Upper Egyptians black looks as being 'foreign'. Although I don't doubt the possiblity, I do question the numbers of these immigrants you cite and I especially question your claims that some of these were slaves!
I thought Somalis were never enslaved, as I am constantly told by many Somalis!
Posts: 26238 | From: Atlanta, Georgia, USA | Registered: Feb 2005
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Djehuti, most of the Somalis do not know much about their history.According to Periplus of the Erytrean Sea (which was written 2nd century A.D), slaves use to be exported from Somalia to Egypt. And according to ibn Said 13th century A.D, slave exporting was stopped in that century in Somalia because the Somalis became full Muslims. As for the Jabartis they/we are the decendants of Aqil ibn Abitalib, the cousin of Prophet Muhamed and went to Egypt as students of al-Az-har and not as slaves.
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Djehuti wrote: ------------------------------ I do question the numbers of these immigrants you cite and I especially question your claims that some of these were slaves!
I thought Somalis were never enslaved, as I am constantly told by many Somalis! -------------------------------
Oh so someone told you. That sounds like high scholarship. With that kind of brainpower its no wonder you endure so many intellectual thrashings at the hands of the other forum members.
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Going back to the original argument and before it was ruined by Afrocentric opinions....
Alexander conquored Egypt and Ptolemy, one of his generals, began a succesive reign over Egypt after Alexander's death. Before that the Egyptians had been in high communication through trade with the Greeks. Generally it is believed Egypt supplied wheat to Greece. The Egyptians were Hellenised as a result of this. Meaning many Gods took on a Helleno-Egyptian identity. The library at Alexandria was built and Egypt was quoted by Plato (indirectly) as being more advanced than the Greek scholars. That soon changed as most of the Egyptian knowledge was absorbed by Greece and inturn Egyptians gained benefits from Greek technology.
For unknown reasons, Egypt was unable to field a substantially sized army since it retracted its borders in 1200BC. Some say climate, others volcanic catastrophe was to blame. In any case Egypt had a problem in its method of governance and military. By ~340BC when Alexander arrived the Egyptians were far from their glory days you could even propose they had a darkage well before Alexander arrived 1200BC-340BC. The way the Greeks conquored and colonised was different mainly because there was no real sense of Nationalism but rather a polis state mentality. The Greeks were pleased enough that a trading city was established and that there was a method of trade with Egypt. They did not intend as did the Arabs to conquoer and convert. The usual method used to make the populace muslim was under the command "convert or die". At this stage Nationalism had started to grow and we see it it throughout Europe, Mediterranean and Near East between 340AD-1400AD. Thereafter we start to see actual constiituted nations being born (1800's). It was this later nationalisation that created the modern state and with it the identity of those who were in power during the Nationalisation. Had Egypt nationalised 1000 years before hand or at any other time then this modern state would probably have never been recognised as true Egyptian.
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Khadary how can Somalis be Jabarti when the Jeberti people who are still to this day called Jeberti live in Eritrea,and Northern Tigray. I am from Aswan and have never heard of any Aswani claiming Somali decent. One of my best friends is a Jabarti from Eritrea and Eritrea recieve Islam Before Somalia while prophet Muhammed was still in Medina.
Posts: 410 | From: Al-Ard | Registered: Jun 2009
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Alexander conquored Egypt and Ptolemy, one of his generals, began a succesive reign over Egypt after Alexander's death. Before that the Egyptians had been in high communication through trade with the Greeks. Generally it is believed Egypt supplied wheat to Greece. The Egyptians were Hellenised as a result of this.
Dubious. Egypt was not "Hellenised" by selling wheat to Greece.
For unknown reasons, Egypt was unable to field a substantially sized army since it retracted its borders in 1200BC. Some say climate, others volcanic catastrophe was to blame.
Who are these "some" that supposedly "say"?
The way the Greeks conquored and colonised was different mainly because there was no real sense of Nationalism but rather a polis state mentality. The Greeks were pleased enough that a trading city was established and that there was a method of trade with Egypt. They did not intend as did the Arabs to conquoer and convert.
More dubious. If Greece was "different" why did the Greek Ptolemies declare themselves pharaohs? They ran no "polis state".. They ran a full-fledged monarchy not a Greek style democracy..
Had Egypt nationalised 1000 years before hand or at any other time then this modern state would probably have never been recognised as true Egyptian.
Egypt was a national entity for thousands of years. How exactly would them "nationalising" mean they were not "true" Egyptian?
Posts: 5905 | From: The Hammer | Registered: Aug 2008
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1879 - “If you have no wind you lie in the river and watch the idle flapping of the sail and the crowd of black and brown fellahs howling for baksheesh…” from Around the World with General Grant : A Narrative of the Visit of General U.S. Grant, Ex-President of the United States to Various Countries in Europe , Asia and Africa in 1877, 1878, 1879 published by John Russell Young, Volume I 1879.
1899 - About the city of Cairo and it’s fair-skinned Turks and its native Arab fellaheen “east of this line 500,000 brown skinned Arabs are living in the quaintest and most delightful, but at the same time dirtiest and most dilapidated streets.. Cairo has a population of some 600,000 inhabitants” p. 74 from The Redemption fo Egypt by William Basil Worsfold published in 1899 by G. Allen.
It's interesting that this is noted. There is a distinction made between the typical "Middle Eastern" person (aka Turk and their analogs) and the native inhabitants.
The demographics within Cairo has changed due to rural influx within the city. This has led to an even higher level of African character. In other words, we're not dealing with Istanbul.
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quote:Dubious. Egypt was not "Hellenised" by selling wheat to Greece.
Egypt was not needed by the Greeks for anything else other than wheat. The mainland of Greece is rocky land that doesn't have large areas that can be used for growing wheat or other grains. The Italian peninsula is very similar hence why the Romans needed Egypt.
quote: Who are these "some" that supposedly "say"?
Random authors and articles. Religious articles describing Sodom think some major environmental event happened around 1200BC.
quote: More dubious. If Greece was "different" why did the Greek Ptolemies declare themselves pharaohs? They ran no "polis state".. They ran a full-fledged monarchy not a Greek style democracy..
Ptolemy was only one of many Generals. Yes they did have absolute power hence monarchs. But Ptolemy and most of the others ran city affairs similar to the way Constitutional Monarchies are run today. Beneath the monarch is a system of Democracy dealing with day to day issues. Or should I say bureaucracy rather than democracy? In any case it was more a system of bureaucracy that was part of the previous Democracies.
quote: Egypt was a national entity for thousands of years. How exactly would them "nationalising" mean they were not "true" Egyptian?
Nationalisation means One Race, Religion and Culture. When you look at all the Nations around the period of 1800-1900 most of them had formed borders based on their Race, Religion and Culture. That norm of Nationalising did not occur in many places where populations were mixed but usually such places focused on Religious unity eg Islamic states, Christian states etc. Egypt for example did not Nationalise because it was always a meeting point between Africa, Europe and Asia. The Nationalisation of Egypt occured late in the 1955-1970's when it was declared an Islamic Arabic State.
quote: The exodus of Greeks from Egypt started during and after the revolution of 1952. With the establishment of the new sovereign regime of Gamal Abdel Nasser and the subsequent nationalisation of many industries from 1957 and afterwards, thousands Greeks had to abandon the country. Many of them have immigrated to Australia, the United States and Greece. Many Greek schools, churches, small communities and institutions have subsequently closed. The Nasser regime was a major disaster for the Greek diaspora which afterwards has dwindled from many thousands to a handful. The dangerous situation in the Middle East has also deteriorated the conditions for the Greeks that stayed back in Egypt. It is estimated that between 1957 - 1962 almost 70% of the Egyptiot Greeks have left the country.
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Friends, The Gymnosophist in Africa were actually the followers of Goshalak from India who himself was a disciple of Vardhaman Mahavir at around 5-6 centuries BC. The famous story of Barlaam and Josaphat is actually the story of Vardhaman and Goshalak. though he was the disciple of Vardhaman, Goshalak had more followers than Vardhaman because he used all the ancient knowledge learnt from Vardhaman but was not allowed to be used for fame or material gain.Though very few people know this and not much will agree but a great deal of research is required on this topic. As this will change the whole character of present day history of Egypt and west Asia. the Gymnosophist present in west asia or Africa were either disciple of Vardhaman or Goshalak as the followers of Budhhism never practise gymnosophism. Though Budhha himself was a Gymnosophist or Nirgrantha before he started his own school of thoughts.
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Chapter 32 Jews and other immigrants in Late Period Egypt J.D. Ray The University of Cambridge Egypt acted as a magnet for immigrants during most periods, but this is particularly true of the centuries beginning with the Twenty-sixth Dynasty and continuing to the end of Ptolemaic rule. Such newcomers were attracted by the potential wealth of the country, which was in marked contrasts to conditions in the Aegean of in much of the rest of the Near-East. In general, a pattern emerges of slow but steady assimilation to the culture, and even the religion, of the immigrants' new home. The Ionians, for example, are attested early [witness the new inscription from Priene published by Masson and Yoyotte 1988, pp. 171-80]. However, if we consider the well-known Curse of Artemisia [+UPZ I 1], which dates from 311 B.C., we find that although the language of this text is Ionic Greek, the text can be transposed phrase for phrase into Demotic; indeed, it can almost be described as an ancient Egyptian text written in Greek. Another interesting example is given in the early[fourth century ?] papyri published by Zaghloul, where the affairs of an ibis-cult in Middle Egypt are in the hands of a man named Ariston[3 rest]. It is hard to imagine a more Egyptian occupation. The Carians, closely associated with the Ionians, show a similar pattern of Egyptianization. Graffiti left by Phoenician pilgrims at Abydos show the same features, and from a large but amorphous community of Aramaic speakers in Egypt we have the Carpentras stele [Grelot 1972, no. 86], which is not only an Egyptian funerary prayer to Osiris, but even contains Egyptian words [nb m3 'ty, hsyw] transliterated into Aramaic. This too can be seen as an ancient Egyptian text, in spite of its language. The now-notorious Amherst papyrus may represent a highly-developed example of this tendency; in many ways this text foreshadowed the though-world of later Greco-Egyptian magic. The principal exception to this pattern of assimilation is the case of the Jews. These are known mainly from the archives at Elephantine, but have also left traces of their attitude in the books of Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and in the story of Joseph, the archetypal history of an immigrant made good. The reasons for Jewish separateness are complex: one may suggest tighter family structure, the maintenance of links with the homeland, and possibly the codification of Jewish scripture. Certainly in late period Egypt Zeus could become Amun, and Thoth Hermes, but the Jewish God remains itself. Ionians and Phoenicians turned into Ionomemphites and Phoinikaigyptioi, but the Jews never became other than Ioudaioi. Page 273 Life in a Multi-Cultural Society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and Beyond Edited by Janet H. Johnson
Posts: 8675 | From: Tukuler al~Takruri as Ardo since OCT2014 | Registered: Feb 2003
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^ What of the Elephantine Papyrus from the island of Yeb (Elephantine) that showed early Israelites present there along with their cults of Yahweh and his wife Asherah?
Posts: 26238 | From: Atlanta, Georgia, USA | Registered: Feb 2005
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quote:Originally posted by userman: Stanley Crouch
The Afrocentric Hustle
Though their claims have little intellectual substance, advocates of Afrocentrism press their agenda by appealing to resentment and guilt.
Our democracy is founded in tragic optimism, an acceptance of human frailty that is not defeatist. Like the blues singer, our American job is to address the universal limitations of life and the foibles of human character while asserting a lyrical but unsentimental high-mindedness. Like the doctor, our democracy must face the unavoidable varieties of disease, decay, and death, yet maintain commitment to birth, to health, to the infinite possibilities and freedoms that can result from successful research and experimentation.
It is, therefore, our democratic duty to cast a cold eye on the life of our policies. We have to weed out corruption whenever we encounter it and redeem ourselves from bad or naive policy, either by making fresh experiments or by returning to things that once worked but were set aside for new approaches that promised to do the job better. If we don’t accept these democratic duties, we will continue to allow intellectual con artists and quacks to raise their tents and hang their shingles on our campuses.
The emergence of Afrocentrism has revealed a continuing crisis in the intellectual assessment of race, history, and culture in our nation. It is another example of how quickly we will submit to visions that are at odds with the heroic imperative of uniting our society. Quite obviously, when it comes to skin tone and complaint, we remain ever gullible, willing to sponsor almost any set of conceptions that makes fresh accusations against our society. In that sense, Afrocentrism is also a commentary on the infinite career possibilities of our time. Just as almost anything can be sold as art, almost any idea capable of finding a constituency can make its way onto our campuses and into our discussions of policy.
In the interest of doing penance, we will accept a shaky system of thought if it makes use of the linguistic pressure points that allow us to experience the sadomasochistic rituals we accept in place of the hard study and responsible precision that should be brought to the continuing assessment of new claims and new ideas. Our desperate good will pushes us to pretend that these flagellation rituals have something to do with facing the facts about injustice in our country and in the history of the world. The refusal to accept the tragic fundamentals of human life has led to our bending before a politics of blame in which all evil can be traced to the devil’s address, which is, in some way, the address of the privileged and the successful. We have borrowed from the realm of therapy the idea that our parents are to blame for our problems, and projected it onto the larger society, absolving the so-called oppressed from responsibility for their actions. We don’t understand—as did the geniuses who shaped the Constitution—that we must always be so cynical about new ways of abusing power that we remain ever wary of intellectual and political pollution.
As a movement, Afrocentrism is another of the clever but essentially simple-minded hustles that have come about over the last 25 years, promoted by what was once called “the professional Negro”—a person whose “identity” and “struggle” constituted a commodity. James Baldwin was a master of the genre, as a writer, public speaker, and television guest, but he arrived before his brand of engagement by harangue was institutionalized. Now, as for most specious American ideas claiming to “get the story straight,” the best market for this commodity is our universities, where it sells like pancakes, buttered by the naive indignation of students and sweetened by gushes of pitying or self-pitying syrup.
Though at its core Afrocentrism has little intellectual substance, it has benefited from the overall decline of faith that has caused intellectuals to fumble the heroic demands of our time. The discontinuity of ideals and actions and the long list of atrocities committed in the name of God and country have convinced many Western intellectuals that the only sensible postures are those of the defeatist and the cynic. Like the tenured Marxist, the Afrocentrist will use the contradiction to define the whole; he or she asserts that Western civilization, for all its pretty ideas, is no more than the work of imperialists and racists who seek an invincible order of geopolitical domination, inextricably connected to profit and exploitation of white over black. The ideals of Western democracies that have struggled to push their policies closer to the universal humanism of the Enlightenment are scoffed at. Where the Marxist looks forward to a sentimental paradise of workers uber alles, the Afrocentrist speaks of a paradise lost and the possibility of a paradise regained—if only black people will rediscover the essentials of their African identity.
For all its pretensions to expanding our vision, the Afrocentrist movement is not propelled by a desire to bring about any significant enrichment of our American culture. What Afrocentrists almost always want is power—the power to be the final arbiter of historical truth, no matter how flimsy their case might be. Like most conspiracy theorists, Afrocentrists accept only their own sources of argument and “proof”; all else is defined as either willfully flawed or brought to debate solely to maintain a vision of history and ideas in which Europe is preeminent. Thus, the worst insult is that critics are “Eurocentric.” Further, when charged with shoddy scholarship, the Afrocentrist retorts that his purportedly revolutionary work uses means of research and assessment outside “European methodology.” However superficial that defense might seem, an important tradition in our country’s history makes it seem at least plausible at first glance. Americans have, from the sciences to the arts, as often as not had to invent the forms that allowed for the purest expressions of our political imagination, national sensibility, and multiethnic history. The Gettysburg Address, the Second Inaugural of March 1865, the electric fight, the phonograph, the motion picture camera, the grammar of film, and the improvisational riches of jazz are the creations of homegrown geniuses such as Lincoln, Edison, Griffith, and Armstrong, who made it abundantly clear that the academy isn’t the only path to grand accomplishment.
Jazz is one of the most important examples of this. It is a perfectly democratic music that reached its peaks outside of “European methodology. “ It has both intuitive geniuses like Louis Armstrong and Billie Holiday and unarguable intellectuals like Duke Ellington and Dizzy Gillespie. Both were rejected by the academy once upon a twentieth-century time. Those with a simple explanation attribute it all to race, which can by no means be left out of the discussion. But we must remember that white jazz musicians were not embraced either, no matter how popular, and that most major aesthetic movements of this century were controversial worldwide. In short, the academic and critical resistance met by jazz musicians was also met by Picasso, Joyce, and Stravinsky.
Jazz musicians weren’t initially accepted in academic circles because, though they could hear harmonic structures perfectly, the intuitives didn’t use theoretical terminology. The intellectuals could, but it took both to make jazz. The intuitives and the intellectuals had one thing in common, however—the ability to achieve objective aesthetic logic. That is why the music grew with such speed and drew depth and breadth from every kind of talent.
So when Afrocentrists defend low-quality work with assertions about the limitations of “European methodology,” they arc drawing upon the American tradition of achievements in political thought, technology, cinema, and jazz that were developed outside the academy to defend themselves. They ignore, however, the objective quality of those achievements. As Gerald Early points out, Afrocentrists have bootlegged the deconstructionist idea that there is no such thing as objective value; a thing’s “value” is merely the reflection of a cultural consensus.
Afrocentrists also reject education as “Eurocentric indoctrination.” They maintain that Western history as written is an unrelenting cultural war that aims to justify and maintain the subjugation of African peoples, and, when literal subjugation is not the goal, to impose upon them a self-hating idolatry of all that is European or European-derived. Afrocentrism, then, presents itself as ethnic liberation, a circling of the wagons within the academy, a bringing down of Eurocentric authority by black intellectual rebellion.
At the same time, Afrocentrists—like those who promote other protest versions of study—want the respect given to traditional disciplines without having to measure up to the standards of traditional research. Though ever scoffing at the academy, they want the prestige and the benefits that come of being there. Thus, Afrocentrism is the career path of a purported radical who seeks tenure. Its proponents justify this on the grounds that the campaign is at least partially one of evangelizing black people about their African heritage. What better battlegrounds than the campuses of tenuring institutions?
A central tenet of Afrocentrism is that Egypt was black and that Greco-Roman civilization was the result of its influence. The foundation of Western civilization, therefore, is African. This is a relatively sophisticated version of Elijah Muhammad’s Yacub myth in which the white man is invented by a mad black scientist determined to destroy the world through an innately evil creature. Why this obsession with Egypt being African and black? Firstly, monuments. There is no significant African architecture capable of rivaling the grand wonders of the world, European or not. Secondly, Africa has no body of thought comparable to that upon which Western civilization has developed its morality, governmental structures, technology, economic systems, and its literary, dramatic, plastic, and musical arts. None of these facts bespeaks an innate black inferiority, but they were used to justify the barbaric treatment of subject peoples by colonial powers waging ruthless campaigns for chattel labor and natural resources.
In fact, the Afrocentrist argument is not with the Western tradition of inquiry, not with the democratic belief that greatness can arise from any point on the social spectrum, and not with the ideas of the Enlightenment that led to the abolition of slavery. Afrocentrism is a debate with the colonial vision of non-Europeans as inferior that has long been under attack from within Western democracies themselves. The Afrocentrist arguments, which are rooted in nationalism, pluralism, and cultural relativity, have their origins in the Western tradition of critical discourse. Afrocentrism is absolutely Western, despite the name changes and African costumes of its advocates.
Afrocentrism benefits from the obsession with “authenticity” of this mongrel nation of ours. More than a few of us yearn for an aristocratic pedigree. If family won’t do, then we might snatch the unwieldy crown of race to distinguish ourselves. This has been the appeal of both the Ku Klux Man and the Nation of Islam. Membership allows one to rise from the bottom and suddenly become part of an elite. Poor “white trash” become “real” white men when performing violent acts in defense of “white civilization.” Negro criminals, embracing a distorted version of Islam, come to understand that the white man is “the devil” and that the black race is the original parent of humankind. College students swallow Afrocentrism and conclude that all their problems are the result of not possessing an “African-centered” worldview.
These are also responses to humiliation. That humiliation is the source of the hysteria that gives such a terrible aspect to the desire to be done with all niceties, to utterly destroy the structure that has engendered the feeling of inferiority or of helplessly being had from the first encounter up to the present. Such response is an expression of having taken the insults of the opposition too seriously, a retreat from engagement, a dismissal of complexity in favor of the home team, a racial isolationist policy.
To justify the myopic vision that emerges requires a list of atrocities—real, exaggerated, and invented. The great tragedies of the white South were the loss of the Civil War and the humiliations of Reconstruction; for the black nationalist, the great tragedies were slavery, the colonial exploitation of Africa, and the European denial of the moral superiority of African culture and civilization, beginning with Egypt.
Our list of grievances may be specific to our particular ethnic or regional history, but the ideas that lie beneath our response evolved from the conflicts between the French and the Germans following the Thirty Years War. When Frederick the Great invited the French into Germany in the eighteenth century, French culture was the most admired in Europe, while Germany had contributed very little to the Renaissance. In today’s terminology, Germany was “underdeveloped.” Eventually, a whole school of rebellious German thought came into being, attacking the French worship of reason and the idea that there was one cultural standard by which all good, mediocrity, and baseness could be judged. When Isaiah Berlin describes outraged German thinking in The Crooked Timber of Humanity, he could be speaking as easily of Afrocentrism and the cultural relativism that has been absorbed by Western society in general from the discipline of anthropology:
The sages of Paris reduce both knowledge and life to systems of contrived rules, the pursuit of external goods, for which men prostitute themselves, and sell their inner freedom, their authenticity; men, Germans, should seek to be themselves, instead of imitating—aping—strangers who have no connection with their own real natures and memories and ways of life. A man’s powers of creation can only be exercised fully on his own native heath, living among men who are akin to him, physically and spiritually, those who speak his language, amongst whom he feels at home, with whom he feels that he belongs. Only so can true cultures be generated, each unique, each making its own peculiar contribution to human civilization, each pursuing its own values its own way, not to be submerged in some general cosmopolitan ocean which robs all native cultures of their particular substance and colour, of their national spirit and genius, which can only flourish on its own soil, from its own roots, stretching back into a common past.
Afrocentrism’s success is due to the fact that it reiterates those arguments, which have become central to the Western cultural debate. But we fail ourselves if we give in to the idea that because all human communities have equal access to greatness all cultures are equal. They are not, and the ignorance, squalor, and disease of the Third World make that quite obvious, just as the rise of the Third Reich and the recent slide into overt tribalism in Eastern Europe prove that no ideas or traditions make us forever invincible to the barbarian call of the wild. Yet if there were not something intrinsically superior about the way in which the West has gathered and ordered knowledge, other cultures wouldn’t so easily fall under the sway of what André Malraux called “The Temptation of the West.” The West has put together the largest and richest repository of human culture, primarily because the vision of universal humanism and the tradition of scientific inquiry have led to the most impressive investigations into human life and the natural world. It is Western curiosity and the conscience of democracy that have made so many inroads against barbarism within and without.
This is obvious to Afrocentrists, but it is not in their career interests to look with equal critical vision at the West and the rest of the world; it would make things less reducible to soap opera politics, to the maudlin elevation of simplistic good and evil. Then the real question of bringing together one’s ethnic heritage with one’s human heritage would need to be addressed. It wouldn’t be so easy to manipulate the emotions of administrators and insecure students. Embracing a circumscribed ethnic identity wouldn’t be seen as a form of therapy, a born-again experience enabling one to cease being an American shackled by feelings of inferiority and to become a confident, wise African.
The Afrocentrist goal is quite similar to that of the white South in the wake of Reconstruction. Having lost the shooting war, white racists won the policy war, establishing a segregated society in which racial interests took precedence over the national vision of democratic rights. The result was nearly a century of struggle before the Constitution—through blood, thunder, and jurisprudence—took its rightful place as the law of the land, with no states’ rights arguments accepted. Knowingly or not, the Afrocentrist responds to the fact that black nationalists and their “revolutionary” counterparts lost the struggle for the black community in the Sixties. In the wake of submission at a latter-day Appomattox—the dissolution of black nationalism and groups like the Black Panthers—the Afrocentrist wishes to replicate the success of white segregationists. Like the segregationist, the Afrocentrist wants to benefit from the power and prosperity of the country while holding at arm’s length anything incompatible with a vision of race as a social absolute. The Afrocentrist is waging a policy war through a curriculum that preaches perpetual alienation of black and white, no matter how far removed from the truth it may be. By attempting to win the souls of black college students and to fundamentally influence what is taught to black children in public schools, the Afrocentrist seeks a large enough constituency to bring about what white segregationists once promised—a society that is “separate but equal.”
Yet the central failure of Afrocentrism is that it doesn’t recognize what Afro-Americans have done, which is to realize over and over, and often against imposing obstacles, the possibilities inherent in democratic society. Lincoln recognized this when he told his secretary that, given his point of social origin, Frederick Douglass was probably the most meritorious man in the entire United States. Originating in tribes whose levels of sophistication were laughable compared to the best of Europe, black Americans have risen to the top of every profession in our society—as scientists, educators, aviators, politicians, artists, lawyers, judges, athletes, military leaders, and so on.
This achievement was hard-won. At its root was a cultural phenomenon. Instead of expressing their submission to white people by embracing Christianity, as black nationalists always claim, Afro-Americans recognized the extraordinary insights into human frailty that run throughout the Old Testament, and the fact that the New Testament contains perhaps the greatest blues line of all time—”Father, why hast thou forsaken me?” In essence, the harsh insights of the Bible were perfectly compatible with the cold-eyed affirmation of the blues, and from those spiritual and secular foundations an indelibly American sensibility evolved, one perfectly suited to the demands of this society. The result is an incredibly long line of achievements that predate the narrow black nationalism that would segregate the world and its culture into the Eurocentric or Afrocentric, and which are the very best arguments against all forms of prejudice.
We all deny that tradition of hard-won achievement whenever our conciliatory cowardice gets the best of us and we treat black people like spoiled children who shouldn’t be asked to meet the standards that the best of all Americans have met. When the records need to be set straight, set them straight. When there is new information that will enrich our understanding of human grandeur and human folly, make that information part of the ongoing dialogue that has shaped Western civilization’s conscience and will. But we can never forget that our fate as Americans is, finally, collective, and that we fail our mission as a democratic nation whenever we remake the rules or distort the truth in the interest of satisfying a constituency unwilling to assert the tragic optimism so intrinsic to the blues and to the Constitution.
The jealous, unintelligent, untalented and hateful dumb piece of sh*t above doesn't know that Abdul Rahman Ibrahim a Senegalese Prince, is actually the story by Alex Haley's book ROOTS.
He just criticizes anybody and everything as way to make money, aka a hustle. So he swings his arms left and right in hopes he may hit, something?looool
Here you can see him being destroyed by Jazz R&B composer James Mtume.
Composer James Mtume Destroys Jazz Critic Stanley Crouch in a Debate about Miles Davis
In other areas he, stanley crouch gets destroyed too. Like in history, anthropology, archaeology, egyptology, population genetics etc...
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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The jealous, unintelligent and untalented stanley VS...
Augustin F.C. Holl et al.
Museum of Anthropology, The University of Michigan, 2009.
Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)
Abstract
The sandstone escarpment of the Dhar Tichitt in South-Central Mauritania was inhabited by Neolithic agropastoral communities for approximately one and half millennium during the Late Holocene, from ca. 4000 to 2300 BP. The absence of prior evidence of human settlement points to the influx of mobile herders moving away from the “drying” Sahara towards more humid lower latitudes. These herders took advantage of the peculiarities of the local geology and environment and succeeded in domesticating bulrush millet – Pennisetum sp. The emerging agropastoral subsistence complex had conflicting and/or complementary requirements depending on circumstances. In the long run, the social adjustment to the new subsistence complex, shifting site location strategies, nested settlement patterns and the rise of more encompassing polities appear to have been used to cope with climatic hazards in this relatively circumscribed area. An intense arid spell in the middle of the first millennium BC triggered the collapse of the whole Neolithic agropastoral system and the abandonment of the areas. These regions, resettled by sparse oasis-dwellers populations and iron-using communities starting from the first half of the first millennium AD, became part of the famous Ghana “empire”, the earliest state in West African history.
For more, here is an excellent thread by Jari, elaborating on this particular aspect.
Anthropology Unit of the University of Geneva: Ounjougou
The Neolithic at Ounjougou is represented by three broad and distinct phases of settlement, marked by significant techno-economic and cultural changes.
Between 9,500 and 7,000 BC, the Early Neolithic saw the precocious emergence of pottery, which appeared at the same time as the development of a strategies for selective and intensive foraging for grains in a landscape of vast grassy plains. The Middle Neolithic is particularly known for a technological aspect – the specialized production of bifacial points on quartzitic sandstone, dated between the 6th and 4th millennia BC.
The Late Neolithic is associated with pronounced cultural and economic changes, with the influence around 2,500 BC of populations arriving from the Sahara, followed by the arrival after 1,800 BC of the first millet cultivators in the region (see the article "The Late Neolithic").
The Neolithic of the Dogon Plateau ended around 300 BC, with the onset of an extremely arid climatic episode.
Rice University Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh
Roderick and Susan McIntosh excavated at Jenne-jeno and neighboring sites in 1977 and 1981 and returned in 1994 for coring and more survey, with funding from the National Science Foundation of the United States, the American Association of University Women, and the National Geographic Society (1994). This research formed the basis of their Ph.D. dissertations at Cambridge University and the University of California at Santa Barbara, respectively. The McIntoshes have published two monographs and numerous articles on their archaeological research in the Middle Niger. They are professors of anthropology at Rice University in Houston, Texas, and they continue to collaborate with Malian colleagues from the Institut des Sciences Humaines on research along the Middle Niger.
For centuries, the upper Inland Niger Delta of the Middle Niger between modern Mopti and Segou has been a vital crossroads for trade. Historical sources, such as the 1828 account of the French explorer Rene Caillié, as well as local Tarikhs (histories written in Arabic) detail for us the central role that Jenne played in the commercial activities of the Western Sudan during the last 500 years. The seventeenth century author of the Tarikh es-Sudan, al-Sadi, wrote that "it is because of this blessed town that camel caravans come to Timbuktu from all points of the horizon". In the famous "Golden Trade of the Moors", gold from mines far to the south was transported overland to Jenne, then trans-shipped on broad-bottom canoes (pirogues) to Timbuktu, and thence by camel to markets in North Africa and Europe. Leo Africanus reported in 1512 that the extensive boat trade on the Middle Niger involved massive amounts of cereals and dried fish shipped from Jenne to provision arid Timbuktu. Today, the stunning mud architecture of Jenne in distinctive Sudanic style is a legacy of its early trade ties with North Africa. Three kilometers to the southeast, the large mound called Jenne-jeno (ancient Jenne) or Djoboro (Pl. 1) is claimed by oral traditions as the original settlement of Jenne. Barren and carpeted by a thick layer of broken pottery, Jenne-jeno lay mute for decades, its history and significance totally unknown. Scientific excavations in the 1970's and 1980's revealed that the mound is composed of over five meters of debris accumulated during sixteen centuries of occupation that began c. 200 B.C.E. These excavations, in addition to more than doubling the period of known history for this region, provided some surprises regarding the local development of society. The results indicated that earlier assumptions about the emergence of complex social organization in urban settlements and the development of long-distance trade as innovations appearing only after the arrival of the Arabs in North Africa in the seventh and eighth centuries were incorrect. The archaeology of Jenne- jeno and the surrounding area clearly showed an early, indigenous growth of trade and social complexity. The importance of this discovery has resulted in the entry of Jenne- jeno, along with Jenne, on the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites.
The early settlement at Jenne-jeno.
It appears that permanent settlement first became possible in the upper Inland Niger Delta in about the third century B.C.E. Prior to that time, the flood regime of the Niger was apparently much more active, meaning that the annual floodwaters rose higher and perhaps stayed longer than they do today, such that there was no high land that regularly escaped inundation. Under these wetter circumstances, diseases carried by insects, especially tsetse fly, would have discouraged occupation. Between 200 B.C.E. and 100 C.E., the Sahel experienced significant dry episodes, that were part of the general drying trend seriously underway since 1000 B.C.E. Prior to that time, significant numbers of herders and farmers lived in what is today the southern Sahara desert, where they raised cattle, sheep and goat, grew millet, hunted, and fished in an environment of shallow lakes and grassy plains. As the environment became markedly drier after 1000 B.C.E., these populations moved southward with their stock in search of more reliable water sources. Oral traditions of groups from the Serer and Wolof of Senegal to the Soninke of Mali trace their origins back to regions of southern Mauritania that are now desert. As these stone-tool-using populations slowly moved along southward-draining river systems, they found various more congenial environments. One of these was the great interior floodplain of the Middle Niger, with its rich alluvial soil and a flood regime that was well-suited to the cultivation of rice. The earliest deposits, nearly six meters deep at Jenne- jeno (Pl. 2) have yielded the hulls of domesticated rice, sorghum, millet, and various wild swamp grasses. The population that settled at Jenne-jeno used and worked iron, fashioning the metal into both jewelry and tools. This is interesting , since there are no sources of iron ore in the floodplain. The earliest inhabitants of Jenne-jeno were already trading with areas outside the region. They also imported stone grinders and beads. The presence of two Roman or Hellenistic beads in the early levels suggests that a few very small trade goods were reaching West Africa, probably after changing hands through many intermediaries. We have not detected any evidence of influences from the Mediterranean world on the local societies at this time.
The original settlement appears to have occurred on a small patch of relatively high ground, and was probably restricted to a few circular huts of straw coated with mud daub. We find many pieces of burnt daub with mat impressions on them in the earliest levels. The pottery associated with this early material is from small, finely-made vessels with thin walls. Artifacts and housing material of this kind persist until c. 450 C.E., occurring over progressive larger area of Jenne-jeno. This indicates that the site was growing larger. In fact, by 450 C.E., the settlement had expanded to at least 25 hectares (over 60 acres).
Jenne-jeno's floruit: 450-1100 C.E.
In the deposits dated from the fifth century, there are definite indications that the organization of society is changing. We find organized cemeteries, with interments in large burial urns (Pl. 3) as well as inhumations outside of urns in simple pits, on the edge of the settlement. From an excavation unit on the western edge of Jenne-jeno, we found evidence that the site was enlarged by quarrying clay from the floodplain and mounding it at the edge of the site New trade items appear, such as copper, imported from sources a minimum of several hundred kilometers away, and gold from even more distance mines. A smithy was installed near one of our central excavation units around 800 C.E. to mold copper and bronze into ornaments, and to forge iron. Smithing continued in this locale for the next 600 years, suggesting that craftsmen had become organized in castes and operated in specific locales, much as we see in Jenne today.
The round houses at Jenne-jeno were constructed with tauf, or puddled mud, foundations, from the fifth to the ninth century. During this time, the settlement continued to grow, reaching its maximum area of 33 hectares by 850 C.E. We know that this is so because sherds of the distinctive painted pottery that was produced at Jenne-jeno only between 450-850 C.E. are present in all our excavation units, even those near the edge of the mound. And we find them at the neighboring mound of Hambarketolo, too, suggesting that these two connected sites totaling 41 hectares (100 acres) functioned as part of a single town complex (Pl. 4) . In the ninth century, two noticeable changes occur (Pl. 5) : tauf house foundations are replaced by cylindrical brick architecture, and painted pottery is replaced by pottery with impressed and stamped decoration. The source of these novelties is unknown, although we can say that they did not involve any fundamental shift in the form or general layout of either houses or pottery. So it is unlikely that any major change in the ethnic composition of Jenne-jeno was associated with the changes. Change with continuity was the prevailing pattern. One of the earliest structures built using the new cylindrical brick technology (Pl. 6) was apparently the city wall, which was 3.7 meters wide at its base and ran almost two kilometers around the town. All these indications of increasingly complex social organization are particularly important in helping us understand the indigenous context of the Empire of Ghana, an influential confederation that consolidated power within large areas to the north and west of the Inland Niger Delta sometime after 500 C.E.. To date, Jenne-jeno provides our only insight into the nature of change and complexity in the Sahel prior to the establishment of the trans-Saharan trade. Although some excavations have been conducted at the presumed capital of Ghana, Kumbi Saleh (in southeastern Mauritania), these focused on the stone-built ruins dating to the period of the trans-Saharan trade.
As we currently understand the archaeology of the entire Jenne region, where over 60 archaeological sites rise from the floodplain within a 4 kilometer radius of the modern town (Pl. 7) , many of these sites were occupied at the time of Jenne-jeno's floruit between 800-1000 C.E.. We have suggested that this extraordinary settlement clustering resulted from a clumping of population around a rare conjunction of highly desirable features (Pl. 8) : excellent rice-growing soils, levees for pasture in the flood season, deep basin for pasture in the dry season and access to both major river channels and the entire inland system of secondary and tertiary marigots from communication and trade.
Decline: C.E. 1200-1400
In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the first unambiguous evidence of North African or Islamic influences appears at Jenne-jeno in the form of brass, spindle whorls, and rectilinear houses. This occurs within a century of the traditional date of 1180 C.E. for the conversion of Jenne's king (Koi) Konboro to Islam, according to the Tarikh es-Sudan. After this point, Jenne-jeno begins a 200-year long period of decline and gradual abandonment, before it becomes a ghost town by 1400. We can speculate that Jenne-jeno declined at the expense of Jenne, perhaps related to the ascendancy of the new religion, Islam, over traditional practice. The continued practice of urn burial at Jenne-jeno through the fourteenth century tells us that many of the site's occupants did not convert to Islam. The production of terracotta statuettes in great numbers throughout the period and even into the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries elsewhere in the Inland Niger Delta may mark loci of resistance, within the context of traditional religious practice, to Islam or the leaders who practiced it. Whatever the cause of Jenne-jeno's abandonment, it was part of a larger process whereby most of the settlements occupied around Jenne in 1000 C.E. lay deserted by 1400. What caused such a realignment of the local population? Again, we can only speculate. Some people likely converted to Islam and moved to Jenne, where wealth and commercial opportunities were increasingly concentrated. But there is also the fact that the climate grew increasingly dry from 1200 C.E., causing tremendous political upheavals further north, and prompting virtual abandonment of whole regions (e.g., the Mema, studied by Malian archaeologist Tereba Togola) that could no longer sustain herds and agriculture. Some, if not all, of these factors were probably implicated in the decline of Jenne-jeno.
Jenne-jeno is easy to reach from Jenne, and its surface traces of ancient houses and pottery are evocative of its rich history. Peering into the deep erosion gullies that scar the surface, one literally looks backward in time over 1000 years.
The phase of pre-Dogon settlement began close to the beginning of the Common Era, several centuries after the end of the Late Neolithic. The populations used objects made of iron and, probably in the second half of the 1st mill. AD, began to master its production. As a whole, the technological and stylistic characteristics of pottery at pre-Dogon sites dated between the 2nd and the 13th centuries is clearly differentiated from that of the Late Neolithic. Such differences include the appearance of new décors made by several kinds of rollers and by woven impressions. This new cultural context places the Dogon Country at the intersection of three different ethnolinguistic spheres – Mande, Gur and Soghay -, for which the influences vary according to region and period.
Oral sources place Dogon settlement in an interval between the 13th and 15th centuries. Within this same period, archaeological research has demonstrated a new cultural break, evidence by the important amount of pottery made by pounding the clay on a baobab mat, typical of one of the five modern ceramic traditions (tradition A, associated with farming women). Oral traditions reveal a very complex history of Dogon settlement, due to frequent relocations of villages associated with a history of climatic and political instability: discovery of water spots, drying of rivers, famines, and land conflicts, but also withdrawal after raids by the neighboring Peul, Bambara and Mossi.
Paleometallurgy
Fieldwork at the Fiko reduction site in 2005. Photo C. Robion-Brunner
Beginning in 2002, a paleometallurgy axis was added with the aim of studying the development of siderurgy in the Dogon Country, from its origins to modern day. One of the principal objectives is to determine the moment when the structure and capacity of production of the industry allowed the widespread use of farming tools and weapons made of iron. Such use of iron corresponds to a change in the technological system within society, with significant effects on its structure and on the environment in the broad sense.
To meet this goal, a multidisciplinary approach was developed. The ethnographic approach aimed at collecting oral traditions related to siderurgy. As a result of a memory still quite alive, much information was recovered concerning the last two or three centuries. These surveys informed on historical, social and economic aspects that would be impossible to demonstrate solely by the study of the material record. They also give access to the spiritual and symbolic world in which production and ironworking were integrated. Finally, practical knowledge of modern craftspeople helped to understand and reconstruct the actions of the earlier groups.
At the same time, the archaeological approach aimed to inventory, describe and understand the material evidence of siderurgy: ancient pits from iron mines, furnaces that allowed iron extraction and forges where objects were made. These sites were systematically located across the landscape, visited and documented by descriptions, photographs and topographic designs. Characteristic sites were selected and studied in greater detail with test pits or larger excavations carried out. This work made it possible to discover furnaces and study their functioning, as well as to collect charcoal samples that could be dated by 14C and slag that could be analyzed in the laboratory to clarify technical aspects, the different modes of production and their development. The construction of a detailed topographic map was done in the aim of demonstrating the spatial organization and to estimate the quantity of debris and thus the level of production. Anthracological analysis additionally yielded important data on the vegetal cover and the model of exploitation of wood resources.
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The jealous, unintelligent and untalented stanley VS...
quote: Northern Egypt near the Mediterranean shows the same pattern- limb length data puts its peoples closer to tropically adapted Africans that cold climate Europeans
"...sample populations available from northern Egypt from before the 1st Dynasty (Merimda, Maadi and Wadi Digla) turn out to be significantly different from sample populations from early Palestine and Byblos, suggesting a lack of common ancestors over a long time. If there was a south-north cline variation along the Nile valley it did not, from this limited evidence, continue smoothly on into southern Palestine.
The limb-length proportions of males from the Egyptian sites group them with Africans rather than with Europeans."
Barry Kemp, "Ancient Egypt Anatomy of a Civilisation. (2005) Routledge. p. 52-60
quote:"When the Elephantine results were added to a broader pooling of the physical characteristics drawn from a wide geographic region which includes Africa, the Mediterranean and the Near East quite strong affinities emerge between Elephantine and populations from Nubia, supporting a strong south-north cline."
Barry Kemp. (2006) Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. p. 54
quote: "From the Mesolithic to the early Neolithic period different lines of evidence support an out-of-Africa Mesolithic migration to the Levant by northeastern African groups that had biological affinities with sub-Saharan populations. From a genetic point of view, several recent genetic studies have shown that sub-Sabaran genetic lineages (affiliated with the Y-chromosome PN2 clade; Underhill et al. 2001) have spread through Egypt into the Near East, the Mediterranean area, and, for some lineages, as far north as Turkey (E3b-M35 Y lineage; Cinniogclu et al. 2004; Luis et al. 2004), probably during several dispersal episodes since the Mesolithic (Cinniogelu et al. 2004; King et al. 2008; Lucotte and Mercier 2003; Luis et al. 2004; Quintana-Murci et al. 1999; Semino et al. 2004; Underhill et al. 2001). This finding is in agreement with morphological data that suggest that populations with sub-Saharan morphological elements were present in northeastern Africa, from the Paleolithic to at least the early Holocene, and diffused northward to the Levant and Anatolia beginning in the Mesolithic.
Indeed, the rare and incomplete Paleolithic to early Neolithic skeletal specimens found in Egypt - such as the 33,000-year-old Nazlet Khater specimen (Pinhasi and Semai 2000), the Wadi Kubbaniya skeleton from the late Paleolithic site in the upper Nile valley (Wendorf et al. 1986), the Qarunian (Faiyum) early Neolithic crania (Henneberg et al. 1989; Midant-Reynes 2000), and the Nabta specimen from the Neolithic Nabta Playa site in the western desert of Egypt (Henneberg et al. 1980) - show, with regard to the great African biological diversity, similarities with some of the sub-Saharan middle Paleolithic and modern sub-Saharan specimens.
This affinity pattern between ancient Egyptians and sub-Saharans has also been noticed by several other investigators (Angel 1972; Berry and Berry 1967, 1972; Keita 1995) and has been recently reinforced by the study of Brace et al. (2005), which clearly shows that the cranial morphology of prehistoric and recent northeast African populations is linked to sub-Saharan populations (Niger-Congo populations). These results support the hypothesis that some of the Paleolithic-early Holocene populations from northeast Africa were probably descendents of sub-Saharan ancestral populations...... This northward migration of northeastern African populations carrying sub-Saharan biological elements is concordant with the morphological homogeneity of the Natufian populations (Bocquentin 2003), which present morphological affinity with sub-Saharan populations (Angel 1972; Brace et al. 2005).
In addition, the Neolithic revolution was assumed to arise in the late Pleistocene Natufians and subsequently spread into Anatolia and Europe (Bar-Yosef 2002), and the first Anatolian farmers, Neolithic to Bronze Age Mediterraneans and to some degree other Neolithic-Bronze Age Europeans, show morphological affinities with the Natufians (and indirectly with sub-Saharan populations; Angel 1972; Brace et al. 2005), in concordance with a process of demie diffusion accompanying the extension of the Neolithic revolution (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1994)."
---Cranial Discrete Traits in a Byzantine Population and Eastern Mediterranean Population Movements F. X. Ricaut, M. Waelkens. Human Biology, Volume 80, Number 5, October 2008, pp. 535-564
quote:The Upper Palaeolithic Lithic Industry of Nazlet Khater 4 (Egypt): Implications for the Stone Age/Palaeolithic of Northeastern Africa
Abstract:
Between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 and 2, Northeast Africa witnessed migrations of Homo sapiens into Eurasia. Within the context of the aridification of the Sahara, the Nile Valley probably offered a very attractive corridor into Eurasia. This region and this period are therefore central for the (pre)history of the out-of-Africa peopling of modern humans. However, there are very few sites from the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic that document these migration events. In Egypt, the site of Nazlet Khater 4 (NK4), which is related to ancient H. sapiens quarrying activities, is one of them. Its lithic assemblage shows an important laminar component, and this, associated with its chronological position (ca. 33 ka), means that the site is the most ancient Upper Palaeolithic sites of this region. The detailed study of the Nazlet Khater 4 lithic material shows that blade production (volumetric reduction) is also associated with flake production (surface reduction). This technological duality addresses the issue of direct attribution of NK4 to the Upper Palaeolithic.
Authors: Leplongeon, Alice1; Pleurdeau, David2 Source: African Archaeological Review, Volume 28, Number 3, September 2011, pp. 213-236(24)Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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Some of the most important evidence of early man in Nubia was discovered recently by an expedition of the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, under the direction of Dr. Kryzstof Grzymski, on the east bank of the Nile, about 70 miles (116 km) south of Dongola, Sudan. During the early 1990's, this team discovered several sites containing hundreds of Paleolithic hand axes. At one site, however, the team identified an apparent stone tool workshop, where thousands of sandstone hand axes and flakes lay on the ground around a row of large stones set in a line, suggesting the remains of a shelter. This seems to be the earliest "habitation" site yet discovered in the Nile Valley and may be up to 70,000 years old.
What the Nubian environment was like throughout these distant times, we cannot know with certainty, but it must have changed many times. For many thousands of years it was probably far different than what it is today. Between about 50,000 to 25,000 years ago, the hand axe gradually disappeared and was replaced with numerous distinctive chipped stone industries that varied from region to region, suggesting the presence in Nubia of many different peoples or tribal groups dwelling in close proximity to each other. When we first encounter skeletal remains in Nubia, they are those of modern man: homo sapiens*.
Nubia's Oldest Battle?
From about 25,000 to 8,000 years ago, the environment gradually evolved to its present state. From this phase several very early settlement sites have been identified at the Second Cataract, near the Egypt-Sudan border. These appear to have been used seasonally by people leading a semi-nomadic existence. The people hunted, fished, and ground wild grain. The first cemeteries also appear, suggesting that people may have been living at least partly sedentary lives. One cemetery site at Jebel Sahaba, near Wadi Halfa, Sudan, contained a number of bodies that had suffered violent deaths and were buried in a mass grave. This suggests that people, even 10,000 years ago, had begun to compete with each other for resources and were willing to kill each other to control them.
Busharia reveals the precocious appearance of pottery on the African continent around the 9th millennium B.C.
The site of Busharia is located near the desert, at the edge of the alluvial plain and near an old Nile channel. It reveals the remains of human occupation at the onset of the Holocene. The settlement is rather eroded, only a few artefacts, ostrich egg fragments and extremely old ceramic sherds remain. These sherds date to circa 8200 B.C. The ceramic assemblage is homogenous, which suggests the existence of a single occupation phase. The decorations and the use of the return technique, common in the central Sahara around the 6th millennium B.C., are unique in this Nubian context for such an early period.
Remains discovered on site suggest the existence of a semi-sedentary population living from hunting, fishing, and the gathering of wild plants. A trial trench and a small-scale excavation were conducted on this Mesolithic site; however, it is impossible to obtain at present a better understanding of the context related to the first ceramics in the region. As this site is located near cultivated zones, it is thus threatened with short-term destruction.
Three scale models—of the Mesolithic hut of el-Barga ( 7500 B.C. ), the proto-urban agglomeration of the Pre-Kerma (3000 B.C.) and the ancient city of Kerma (2500-1500 B.C.)—give a glimpse of the world of the living. They show the evolution of settlements for each of the key periods in Nubian history. Huts indicate the birth of a sedentary way of life, the agglomeration confirms the settling of populations on a territory and the capital of the Kingdom of Kerma marks the culmination of the complexification of Nubian architecture with its ever more monumental constructions. The three models were created in Switzerland by Hugo Lienhard and were installed in the museum in January 2009.
Wadi el-Arab reveals an almost continuous series of settlement remains spanning two millennia as well as the first Neolithic burials known in Africa.
This site is located today in a desert region. Discovered in 2005, it has been under excavation since 2006. This is an open-air site occupied on several occasions during a period between 8300 and 6600 B.C. Its inhabitants then lived in a rather wooded environment, living on fishing, hunting and gathering.
The site reveals numerous flint tools and flakes, grinding stone fragments, ceramic sherds, ostrich eggshell beads, shells and mollusc remains, fish vertebrae and faunal remains. Rare domesticated ox bones were discovered and dated to circa 7000 B.C. This discovery is important for the question regarding the origin of animal domestication in Africa because it reinforces the idea of a local domestication of African oxen from aurochs living in the Nile Valley.
During the 2006-2007 campaign, six burial pits were excavated in three different areas. Dated to between 7000 and 6600, these burials are the first known Neolithic burials on the African continent.
The Upper Palaeolithic Lithic Industry of Nazlet Khater 4 (Egypt): Implications for the Stone Age/Palaeolithic of Northeastern Africa
Authors: Leplongeon, Alice1; Pleurdeau, David2 Source: African Archaeological Review, Volume 28, Number 3, September 2011, pp. 213-236(24)
Abstract:
Between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 and 2, Northeast Africa witnessed migrations of Homo sapiens into Eurasia. Within the context of the aridification of the Sahara, the Nile Valley probably offered a very attractive corridor into Eurasia. This region and this period are therefore central for the (pre)history of the out-of-Africa peopling of modern humans. However, there are very few sites from the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic that document these migration events. In Egypt, the site of Nazlet Khater 4 (NK4), which is related to ancient H. sapiens quarrying activities, is one of them. Its lithic assemblage shows an important laminar component, and this, associated with its chronological position (ca. 33 ka), means that the site is the most ancient Upper Palaeolithic sites of this region. The detailed study of the Nazlet Khater 4 lithic material shows that blade production (volumetric reduction) is also associated with flake production (surface reduction). This technological duality addresses the issue of direct attribution of NK4 to the Upper Palaeolithic.
Wadi Kubbaniya (ca. 17,000–15,000 B.C.)
In Egypt, the earliest evidence of humans can be recognized only from tools found scattered over an ancient surface, sometimes with hearths nearby. In Wadi Kubbaniya, a dried-up streambed cutting through the Western Desert to the floodplain northwest of Aswan in Upper Egypt, some interesting sites of the kind described above have been recorded. A cluster of Late Paleolithic camps was located in two different topographic zones: on the tops of dunes and the floor of the wadi (streambed) where it enters the valley. Although no signs of houses were found, diverse and sophisticated stone implements for hunting, fishing, and collecting and processing plants were discovered around hearths. Most tools were bladelets made from a local stone called chert that is widely used in tool fabrication. The bones of wild cattle, hartebeest, many types of fish and birds, as well as the occasional hippopotamus have been identified in the occupation layers. Charred remains of plants that the inhabitants consumed, especially tubers, have also been found.
It appears from the zoological and botanical remains at the various sites in this wadi that the two environmental zones were exploited at different times. We know that the dune sites were occupied when the Nile River flooded the wadi because large numbers of fish and migratory bird bones were found at this location. When the water receded, people then moved down onto the silt left behind on the wadi floor and the floodplain, probably following large animals that looked for water there in the dry season. Paleolithic peoples lived at Wadi Kubbaniya for about 2,000 years, exploiting the different environments as the seasons changed. Other ancient camps have been discovered along the Nile from Sudan to the Mediterranean, yielding similar tools and food remains. These sites demonstrate that the early inhabitants of the Nile valley and its nearby deserts had learned how to exploit local environments, developing economic strategies that were maintained in later cultural traditions of pharaonic Egypt.
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The jealous, unintelligent and untalented stanley VS...
More on the people who match the Ancient Egyptians in a continues model. From where the Egyptian culture arose.
The nubian mesolithic: A consideration of the Wadi Halfa remains
References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article.
Meredith F. Small* et al.
Morphological variation of the skeletal remains of ancient Nubia has been traditionally explained as a product of multiple migrations into the Nile Valley.
In contrast, various researchers have noted a continuity in craniofacial variation from Mesolithic through Neolithic times.
This apparent continuity could be explained by in situ cultural evolution producing shifts in selective pressures which may act on teeth, the facial complex, and the cranial vault.
A series of 13 Mesolithic skulls from Wadi Halfa, Sudan, are compared to Nubian Neolithic remains by means of extended canonical analysis.
Results support recent research which suggests consistent trends of facial reduction and cranial vault expansion from Mesolithic through Neolithic times.
From about 20,000 BCE, there are further refinements in stone technology. Very specialized tools appeared, including arrowheads, fishhooks, grindstones, and awls. These most refined of stone implements have the generic name 'microlithic.' This era of the late Paleolithic also saw the development of complex composite tools such as bows and arrows. As well, fishing equipment, including boats, and even pottery appeared in some environmental niches. As tools became more specialized and finely made, local variations, including stylistic ones, became more and more the rule...
From the standpoint of African history the most important development of the late Stone Age was the emergence of more settled ('sedentary') societies. These probably developed first along the banks of the Upper Nile in the Cataracts region, in modern day southern Egypt and northern Sudan (ancient Nubia). Evidence of barley harvesting there dates from as early as 16,000 BCE. The ability to make greater use of abundant wild grains, probably coupled with greater exploitation of aquatic resources, led to a more settled existence for some people. These more sedentary peoples were a part of what is now known collectively as the African Aquatic Culture/ Tradition. This way of life spread from the Upper Nile into a much larger area of Africa during the last great wet phase of African climate history, which began about 9,000 and peaked about 7,000 BCE. The higher rainfall levels of the period created numerous very large shallow lakes across what are now the arid southern borderlands of the Sahara desert. Inhabitants of shore communities crafted microlithic tools to exploit a marine environment: fishing and trapping aquatic animals. This provided abundant food supplies, particularly high in protein and supported the earliest known permanent settlements. Culturally and linguistically related peoples ancestral to modern Black Africans established settlements throughout this vast, ancient great lakes area. It is theorized that they spoke the mother Nilo-Saharan tongue. Sophisticated water-related technologies supported not only the development of settled communities, but also the invention of things like pottery, which were formerly thought to be associated exclusively with the Food Production Revolution of the later New Stone Age, or Neolithic. While the African aquatic tradition itself lasted only until the beginning of the modern drier period, around 3,000 BCE, its legacy has been felt ever since.
Basil Davidson, Africa in History (1975)Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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^^ that is video from a Nubian from Egypt saying they were black who is a actual Egyptologist, not some copt who fancies herself a scholar because she doesn't want to be a Arab because their muslim. Besides copts don't have tropical body plans nor a african skull cavity
Here is a woman from North Egypt, Cairo who happens to be a trained tour guide in Egyptology.
Trotter and Gleser's (Trotter and Gleser: Am J Phys Anthropol 10 (1952) 469–514; Trotter and Gleser: Am J Phys Anthropol 16 (1958) 79–123) long bone formulae for US Blacks or derivations thereof (Robins and Shute: Hum Evol 1 (1986) 313–324) have been previously used to estimate the stature of ancient Egyptians. However, limb length to stature proportions differ between human populations; consequently, the most accurate mathematical stature estimates will be obtained when the population being examined is as similar as possible in proportions to the population used to create the equations. The purpose of this study was to create new stature regression formulae based on direct reconstructions of stature in ancient Egyptians and assess their accuracy in comparison to other stature estimation methods. We also compare Egyptian body proportions to those of modern American Blacks and Whites. Living stature estimates were derived using a revised Fully anatomical method (Raxter et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 130 (2006) 374–384). Long bone stature regression equations were then derived for each sex. Our results confirm that, although ancient Egyptians are closer in body proportion to modern American Blacks than they are to American Whites, proportions in Blacks and Egyptians are not identical. The newly generated Egyptian-based stature regression formulae have standard errors of estimate of 1.9–4.2 cm. All mean directional differences are less than 0.4% compared to anatomically estimated stature, while results using previous formulae are more variable, with mean directional biases varying between 0.2% and 1.1%, tibial and radial estimates being the most biased. There is no evidence for significant variation in proportions among temporal or social groupings; thus, the new formulae may be broadly applicable to ancient Egyptian remains.
An examination of Nubian and Egyptian biological distances: Support for biological diffusion or in situ development?
K. Goddea, b, Corresponding Author Contact Information
a Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee
b Department of Science, South College
Abstract
Many authors have speculated on Nubian biological evolution. Because of the contact Nubians had with other peoples, migration and/or invasion (biological diffusion) were originally thought to be the biological mechanism for skeletal changes in Nubians. Later, a new hypothesis was put forth, the in situ hypothesis. The new hypothesis postulated that Nubians evolved in situ, without much genetic influence from foreign populations. This study examined 12 Egyptian and Nubian groups in an effort to explore the relationship between the two populations and to test the in situ hypothesis. Data from nine cranial nonmetric traits were assessed for an estimate of biological distance, using Mahalanobis D2 with a tetrachoric matrix. The distance scores were then input into principal coordinates analysis (PCO) to depict the relationships between the two populations. PCO detected 60% of the variation in the first two principal coordinates. A plot of the distance scores revealed only one cluster; the Nubian and Egyptian groups clustered together. The grouping of the Nubians and Egyptians indicates there may have been some sort of gene flow between these groups of Nubians and Egyptians. However, common adaptation to similar environments may also be responsible for this pattern. Although the predominant results in this study appear to support the biological diffusion hypothesis, the in situ hypothesis was not completely negated.
Analysis of Hair Samples of Mummies from Semna South, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, (1978) 49: 277-262
As Brothwell and Spearman (‘63) point out, reddish-brown ancient hair is usually the result of partial oxidation of the melanin pigment. This color was seen in a large proportion of the Semna sample, and also noted by Titlbachova and Titlbach (‘77) on Egyptian material, where it also may have resulted from the mummification process. However, the large number of blond hairs that are not associated with the cuticular damage that bleaching produces, probably points to a significantly lighter-haired population than is now present in the Nubian region. Brothwell and Spearman (’63) noted genuinely blond ancient Egyptian samples using reflectance spectrophotometry. Blondism, especially in young children, is common in many darkhaired populations (e.g., Australian, Melanesian), and is still found in some Nubian villages (J. Zabkar, personal communication).
Only one sample (M197) showed cuticular damage and irregularities definitely consistent with bleaching, although bleaching could not be ruled out in some of the blond samples.
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The jealous, unintelligent and untalented stanley VS...
SETTLEMENT ARCHAEOLOGY IN NIGERIA: A SHORT NOTE
Oluwole Ogundele Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION The history of scientific archaeological research in Nigeria, is a relatively recent development. This dates back to the 1940's when a rock-shelter named "Rop" was investigated, in addition to the limited excavations embarked upon by Bernard Fagg, in the Nok Valley area of Central Nigeria. Similarly, rescue excavations were carried out in Igbo-Ukwu located in the eastern part of the country by Thurstan Shaw and his team in the latter part of the 1950's. Since then, several archaeological efforts have been made in few locations such as Ile-Ife, Old-Oyo, Benin and Daima all situated in the western and northern parts of Nigeria respectively.
In all these archaeological excavations, the objectives were mainly to retrieve artifacts and describe them with a view to reconstructing the cultural history of the region in question. Archaeological researches during this period, were basically artifact-oriented, and not unexpectedly, classifications based on stratigraphic evidence, occupied a central position in the scheme of things. This research orientation is with a view to gaining some insights about sequences of events and chronologies. It is important to note that apart from the fact that these archaeological works were scattered (i.e. few and far between), there were no well formulated strategies and/or research designs aimed at clarifying our understanding of the spatial dimension of the culture(s) being studied, both at the intra- and inter-site levels. Indeed, lateral-oriented activities involving mapping and excavations were not considered vital to the operationalization of research works until in the 1980's. Some of the concomitant effects of this development are as follows:
1. Artifacts retrieved from excavations appear to remain isolated, without any significant connections between them and a given geographical configuration, thus making it impossible to recreate the extent to which a people had exploited the resources within their environment. 2. Establishment of the nature and pattern(s) of inter-group relations among the peoples in different parts of the country in prehistoric and proto-historic or historic periods remains a far cry.
PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES Since the archaeologist is concerned with the reconstruction of palaeo-cultures, space or environment is one of the indispensable variables (Ogundele 1989; 1990; 1994). However, in having an over-view of the works of pioneers of archaeology in Nigeria and to some extent the present crop of experts in the field, efforts should be made to take into consideration several problems that faced them or are still facing some of them. Given this situation, my assessonent of their works is done here with great respect and caution. Indeed one major objective of this piece of work, is to attempts to promote a new appreciation of available or potential archaeological data especially settlement finds and features, with a view to broadening our horizon of archaeological scholarship in Nigeria and West Africa as a whole.
Until very recently, all the archaeologists working in Nigeria were mainly Europeans and they did not often stay long enough to embark upon systematic and long-term archaeological surveys. In other words, Nigerian archaeologists are still disappointingly few and largely as a result, some systematic archaeological investigations of the entire country is still a far cry. Closely related to the problem listed above, is the fact that Nigeria is a vast country, too large for a handful of archaeologists to manage. In addition, the geographical character of the region is extremely complex. Thus for example, the major vegetational zones (especially the thick forests and swamps in the south, and the very desert area to the north), constitute in themselves, distinct obstacles to archaeological field-work.
Another major difficulty has to do with the fact that Nigeria is situated in the humid tropics and as with other humid tropical regions, the soils are acidic and erosion is generally very pronounced. These have adversely affected the preservation of archaeological remains especially fragile items like bones and wooden objects of great time-depth. However, there are still some depositional cases such as deltaic conditions, rock-shelters and caves, where archaeological materials are relatively better preserved. Overall however, the archaeologist working in Nigeria is left with just the imperishables such as stone tools and potsherds and little else in the way of human occupation to analyze, reconstruct and interpret.
The lack and in places paucity of data has tended to encourage unrestrained speculation which in fact largely accounts for some insupportable hypotheses being put forward by many early or pioneer archaeologists, concerning the nature of culture change in Nigeria. One of such hypotheses was that the peopling of the forest region (southern Nigeria and indeed, all of the Guinea zone of West Africa) was a much later development than that of the northern open savanna area. Recent archaeological research has shown that people were already living in south-western Nigeria (specifically Iwo-Eleru) as early as 9000 BC and perhaps earlier at Ugwuelle-Uturu (Okigwe) in south-eastern Nigeria (Shaw and Daniels 1984: 7-100).
Lack of adequate funding and dating facilities has also caused a lag in archaeological research in Nigeria and indeed, all of West Africa. Many sites threatened by construction work such as bridges, roads, houses and dams are not normally rescued because there are no sources of funding. The governments of West African countries have not been supportive enough of archaeological work, partly because both the leaders and the peoples do not recognize the role a sound knowledge of the past can play in nation-building.
There is up to now, no well-equipped dating laboratory either to process charcoal samples or potsherds. The only laboratory in West Africa is in Senegal and it is far from being well equipped. Consequently, it is restricted mostly to processing charcoal samples collected from sites in Senegal. Given this problem, samples collected from archaeological excavations have to be sent abroad for processing. This delays the rate at which archaeological information is put into its proper time perspective.
It seems also that a great deal more time and attention are paid to the later phases of human settlement history than the earlier. Consequently, much more is known of iron age and historic settlements in Nigeria and West Africa as a whole. Some considerable amount of work has been done for these phases in Benin City in Nigeria, Niani in Niger Republic and Jenne-Jeno in Mali, among other places in West Africa. One reason for this interest in the later phase seems to rest in the fact that there is a meeting point between historic settlement archaeology and oral traditions in the region generally and the fact that people can identify much more easily with this phase because it is more recent and by this fact closer to our times.
It is pertinent to note that there is no settlement archaeology tradition(s) in Nigeria up to the early 1980's. Even at places like Ife, Old-Oyo, Benin and Zaria where some relatively limited archaeological work has been carried out, efforts were mainly concentrated on walls (Soper 1981: 61-81; Darling 1984: 498-504; Leggett 1969: 27). In Southern Nigeria, proto-historic settlements were generally composed of mud or sun-dried brick houses. Most if not all these house structures and defensive and/or demarcatory walls have either been destroyed or obliterated by erosion. The tradition(s) of constructing houses with stones in the pre colonial past was well reflected in many parts of Northern Nigeria. In fact, many hill-top settlements in this area of Nigeria were composed of stone houses - a direct response among other things, to opportunities offered by the immediate environment (Netting 1968: 18-28; Denyer 1978: 41-47). Despite the nature of the soil chemistry (acidic soil) stone buildings are still better preserved than mud houses.
Relics of ancient settlements are much fewer in the south than in the north, because of the different building materials as well as techniques of construction which are partly determined by diverse historical experiences among other things. Hill-tops and slopes offer abundant boulders which could be dressed for construction, while in the plains, it is much easier to obtain mud for building houses. For example, the dispersed mode of settlement of the present-day Tiv as opposed to the nucleated rural settlements on the hill-tops and slopes in ancient times, coupled with their shifting agricultural system, as well as the factor of refarming and/or resettlement of former sites by some daughter groups which hived off, from the original stock, make most ancient settlements and recently abandoned sites (made up of sun-dried brick houses) difficult to discover at least in a fairly well preserved state (Sokpo and Mbakighir 1990, Personal Communication).
This preservation problem among others further make the task of establishing stratigraphic sequences a little bit difficult. Nigeria is divisible into zones on the basis of techniques of construction as follows: 1. Mud construction techniques which are very common in most parts of southern Nigeria. 2. Stone construction techniques which are very common in most parts of Northern Nigeria; and 3. Combination of mud and stone construction techniques. This development is common in Tivland, where the ancient houses and protective walls on hill-tops were constructed of stones, while present-day houses in the plains are usually constructed of mud. Given our experiences in Nigeria, the third category of construction is very useful for generating models. These are models derivable from oral traditional data and ethnographic resources. Such models, if carefully applied to archaeological situations, can greatly fill the gaps in our knowledge of the past of the Nigerian peoples.
CONCLUSION Scientific studies of settlement archaeology of the different parts of Nigeria are be-devilled by a lot of problems ranging in nature from inadequate facilities to fewness of archaeologists on ground. Developments in recent years have however shown that these problems are now being turned into a source of strength by the indigenous archaeologists. Thus for example abundant oral traditional and ethnographic resources in Nigeria are being profitably harnessed. This is with a few to clarifying our understanding of aspects of the people's settlement heritage.
REFERENCES Darling, P. 1984. Archaeology & History In Southern Nigeria: The ancient Linear Earthworks of Benin and Ishan. B. A. R. Series 215. Denyer, S 1978. African traditional architecture. Heinemann, Ibadan. Leggett, H. J. 1969 Former Hill and Inselberg Settlements In the Zaria District. West African Archaeology News-letter. No.11. Mbakighir, N. 1990. Personal Communication. Netting, R. M. 1968. Hill Farmers of Nigeria: Cultural Ecology of the Kofyar of The Jos Plateau, University of Washington, Press Seattle. Ogundele, S. O. 1989. Settlement Archaeology In Tivland: A Preliminary Report. West African Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 19. Ogundele, S.O. 1990. The Use of Ethno-archaeology In Tiv Culture History. African Notes. Vol. 14. Ogundele, S.O. 1994. Notes On Ungwai Settlement Archaeology. Journal of Science Research. Vol. 1. Shaw, T.& Daniells, S. G. H. 1984. Excavations At Iwo-Eleru, Ondo State, Nigeria. West African Journal of Archaeology. Vol.14. Soper, R. 1981. The Walls of Oyo Ile. West African Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 10/11. Sokpo, A. 1990. Personal Communication.
[Note] This is a report sent with a letter of 18th December 1995 from Dr. Ogundele. This report shows the situation of archaeological activities in Nigeria. Appropriate support to the Nigerian archaeologists would inprove the difficult situation.
Department of Archaeology, Okayama University NIIRO Izumi 20th Feb. 1996Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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