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Author Topic: DNA studies if black amazigh im Morocco
typeZeiss
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Anyone know of any DNA studies that have been done on black amazigh in Morocco? Im curious as to what other African populations they show similarities to
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xyyman
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May be the continentals that post here can help him or me out. What is a "black Amazigh'?

There are many genetic studies on the indigenous population of North Africa which some call themselves Amazigh. Who do the Amazigh relate to genetically? Exactly where they should be...geographically. A bridge between Africans and Europeans. They carry both African and Eurasian "labeled " genetic material. Autosomaly they carry very little European ancestry. The Saharawi and the Tunisian carry virtually no European Ancestry and the purest of the group. Modern Egyptians carry the most "foreign" ancestry of all North Africans. Essentially from Ottoman Turks.

But even more fascinating is that the sex-related genetic material show the Amazigh as pure Africans along the male line, while the female carry a high frequency of "European/Eurasian" haplogroups. Are they descendants of European female concubines? No! Why? Because per Kefi et al and a few other researchers the African version of these female haplogroups is OLDER than the European version.

Conclusion?....

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Without data you are just another person with an opinion - Deming

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typeZeiss
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Xyyman a black amazigh means exactly what it sounds like. A amazigh that is black as opposed to a white or half caste one. Amazigh is no a monolithic group.


Anyone know of any studies that have looked soecorocly at black amazigh groups?

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the lioness,
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"The Berbers: Linguistic and genetic diversity" (PDF). ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
_____________________

"Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (5): 1023–34. doi:10.1086/386295. PMC 1181965. PMID 15069642.

_____________________


Alvarez, Luis; Santos, Cristina; Montiel, Rafael; Caeiro, Blazquez; Baali, Abdellatif; Dugoujona, Jean-Michel; Dugoujon, Jean-Michel; Aluja, Maria Pilar (2009-06-01). "Y-chromosome variation in South Iberia: insights into the North African contribution". American Journal of Human Biology: The Official Journal of the Human Biology Council. 21 (3): 407–409. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20888. ISSN 1520-6300. PMID 19213004.


________________

Cruciani et al. 2004, Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa.

_________________

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typeZeiss
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quote:
Originally posted by the lioness,:
"The Berbers: Linguistic and genetic diversity" (PDF). ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
_____________________

"Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (5): 1023–34. doi:10.1086/386295. PMC 1181965. PMID 15069642.

_____________________


Alvarez, Luis; Santos, Cristina; Montiel, Rafael; Caeiro, Blazquez; Baali, Abdellatif; Dugoujona, Jean-Michel; Dugoujon, Jean-Michel; Aluja, Maria Pilar (2009-06-01). "Y-chromosome variation in South Iberia: insights into the North African contribution". American Journal of Human Biology: The Official Journal of the Human Biology Council. 21 (3): 407–409. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20888. ISSN 1520-6300. PMID 19213004.


________________

Cruciani et al. 2004, Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa.

_________________

is this looking specifically at black amazighs?
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the lioness,
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quote:
Originally posted by typeZeiss:
[s this looking specifically at black amazighs?

The Amazigh groups on Morocco contain a variety of skin colors and hair types within each one so you are not going to find a study on "black amazighs".
The term Hartania (Haratin) is used for Southern Moroccan groups of the Tata region who are strongly mixed with black populations. Little is known about their origins.They are particularly found in Mauritania, Morocco and Western Sahara.
Their primary occupation has been as agriculture serfs, herdsmen and subservient workers, and they speak Hassaniya Arabic. They were owned in every town and farming centers before the time of Moroccan ruler Ismail Ibn Sharif.
The Haratins remain indispensable workers in modern oases societies, states Ensel, and continue to be mistreated in contrast to the upper strata called the "Shurfa".[19] According to Remco Ensel, Haratin along with Swasin in Morocco and other northern fringe societies of the Sahara, were a part of a social hierarchy that included the upper strata of nobles, religious specialists and literati, followed by freemen, nomadic pastoral strata and slaves. The Haratin were hierarchically higher than the `Abid (descendant of slaves) at the very bottom, but lower than Ahrar. This hierarchy, states Ensel, has been variously described as ethnic groups, estates, quasi-castes, castes or classes.[23][24]

The Haratins historically lived segregated from the main society, in a rural isolation.[24] Their subjugation was sometimes ideologically justified by nobles and some religious scholars, even though others disagreed.[25] The social stratification of Haratin and their inter-relationships with others members of the society varied by valley and oasis, but whether the Haratins were technically 'unfreed, semi-freed or freed' slaves, they were considered as "inferior" by other strata of the society.[26] The Haratin remain the marginalized population of Morocco, just like other similar groups around the world.[27


Buy this important book:

Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam
By Chouki El Hamel

https://books.google.com/books?id=UwogAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcove

read page 10 and then do further searches fro Haratin in the search field


_________________________________________


Amazigh groups in Morocco:

Drawa

Filala

Tekna

Mesgita

Zeri

Ghomara

Kabyle

_______________________

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Sahrawi people

As with most Saharan peoples living in the Sahara, the Sahrawi culture is mixed. It shows mainly Berber-Tuareg characteristics, like the privileged position of women[10] identical to the neighboring Berber-speaking Tuaregs—and some additional Bedouin Arab and black African characteristics. Sahrawis are composed of many tribes and are largely speakers of the Hassaniya dialect of Arabic, and some of them still speak Berber in both of Morocco's disputed and non-disputed territories.

As described above, the Hassaniya speaking tribes are of Arabian Beni Hassan descent, who fused with the dominant Sanhaja Berber tribes, as well as black African and other indigenous populations (e.g. various indigenous Soninke speaking groups) migrants and captured in the south by the Berbers to sell to the Romans (black slaves in the ancient/Middle Ages trans-saharian route trade). Even though cultural arabization of the Berber people was thorough, some elements of Berber identity remain.

Some tribes, such as the large Reguibat, have a Berber background but have since been thoroughly arabized; others, such as the Oulad Delim, are considered descendants of the Beni Hassan, even though intermarriage with other tribes and former slaves have occurred; a few, such as the Tekna tribal confederation, have retained some Berber dialect of the area. Often, though not in the case of the Tekna, the Berber-Arab elements of a tribe's cultural heritage reflects social stratification. In traditional Moorish-Sahrawi society, Arab tribes of the Tekna confederation claimed a role as rulers and protectors of the disarmed weaker Berber tribes of the Takna confederation. Thus, the warrior tribes and nobility would be Arab.

However, most tribes, regardless of their mixed heritage, tend to claim some form of Arab ancestry, as this has been key to achieving social status. Many (the so-called chorfa tribes) will also claim descendancy from the Prophet Muhammad himself. In any case, no tribal identity is cut in stone, and over the centuries a great deal of intermarriage and tribal re-affiliation has occurred to blur former ethnic/cultural lines; groups have often seamlessly re-identified to higher status identities, after achieving the military or economic strength to defeat former rulers. This was, for example, the case of the largest of the Sahrawi tribes, the Reguibat. A Berber-descended zawiya (scholarly) tribe who in the 18th century took up camel nomadism and warrior traditions, they simultaneously took on more and more of an Arab identity, reflecting their new position alongside the traditional warrior castes of Arab Hassane origin, such as the Oulad Delim and the Arabic-speaking tribes of the Tekna confederation.

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Swenet
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Any pictures to show what you mean?

There is no such thing as a modern day 'black Amazigh' as defined above. If you're talking about the people who brought the language family to the Maghreb a couple of millenia ago, as they existed back then, they don't exist anymore. You're probably talking about modern day Maghrebis with dark skin, but to say they're not hybrids... not sure if I buy into that..

The challenge is that dark skin in the Maghreb could either reflect mixtures native to North Africa (but still mixtures) and/or Maghrebis with SSA ancestry. For instance, the published Mozabite genomes include one or more outlier individuals with SSA admixture, which may be more recent than the SSA ancestry common to the entire sample. These outliers will undoubtedly have darker skin because they have up to ~75% SSA ancestry, while this percentage is lower in most of the rest of the sample.

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typeZeiss
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
Any pictures to show what you mean?

There is no such thing as a modern day 'black Amazigh' as defined above. If you're talking about the people who brought the language family to the Maghreb a couple of millenia ago, as they existed back then, they don't exist anymore. You're probably talking about modern day Maghrebis with dark skin, but to say they're not hybrids... not sure if I buy into that..

The challenge is that dark skin in the Maghreb could either reflect mixtures native to North Africa (but still mixtures) and/or Maghrebis with SSA ancestry. For instance, the published Mozabite genomes include one or more outlier individuals with recent SSA admixture. Samples that conform to these two scenarios aren't rare.

have you ever been to morocco?
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the lioness,
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 -


 -
Haratin/Saharawi People
"Young girl typically ornamented" Morocco Tata Tissint region, Morocco


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Gnawas circa 1920s

http://www.afropop.org/9305/feature-gnawa-music-of-morocco/

Feature: Gnawa Music of Morocco

Dr. Chouki El Hamel received his doctorate from the University of Paris-Sorbonne in January 1993. His training in France at the Centre de Recherches Africaines was in precolonial African History. His interest has focused on the spread and the growth of Islamic culture and the evolution of Islamic institutions in Africa. His research is evidenced in his published articles and a book concerning intellectual life in precolonial Islamic West Africa. He taught courses in African History at North Carolina State University in Raleigh and at Duke University from 1994 to 2001. In 2001-2002 he was a scholar in residence at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in New York City and in 2002 he joined the History Department at Arizona State University. He is currently finishing his book, “Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam” He contributed this essay to Afropop Worldwide for the program African Slaves in Islamic Lands.

Westerners who have visited Morocco have likely encountered Gnawa musicians. In the coastal Atlantic town of Essaouira, where an annual festival of Gnawa music takes place, and in Marrakesh, at its spectacular central square called Jamaa el-Fna. The colorful gowns and caps of Gnawa musicians, covered with cowry shells, coupled with the distinct sound of their instruments – metallic castanets, heavy drums and a three-stringed bass lute (guembri) – provide both visual and audio confirmation of the Gnawa presence.


Some of the best known genres of music to all Moroccans come from the classical Andalusian legacy, and reflect Morocco’s historic relationship with Spain. Andalusian music is recognized as a national music and is repeatedly featured on national audio-visual media. By contrast, the Sephardic music and folksongs from the Jewish communities in Morocco are unfortunately vanishing because Morocco lost its Jewish population to help create the state of Israel. Another important but often neglected genre of music is that of the Gnawa, who came from West Africa to Morocco by way of migration, both voluntary and forced. Although the Gnawa are now fully integrated in Moroccan society, the Gnawa still remain a cultural and a social distinctiveness.


The term Gnawa has three important meanings. First, it refers to black people who were enslaved in West Africa. It is commonly believed that Gnawa of Morocco were originally black slaves and who over time had become free under various historical circumstances. Historians believe that the Gnawa population originated from black West Africa – from Senegal to Chad and from Mali in the north to Nigeria in the south. Many of these enslaved people are thought to come from Old Ghana (a kingdom north of Mali) in the 11th through the 13th century. These enslaved groups were called “Gnawa.” There is also some historical evidence that a large enslaved population came from the great market of Djenne in Mali, and that Gnawi is a slight deformation of Jennawi. The term Gnawa is thus a color designation. It historically means “the black people.”


Second, it defines both a religious/spiritual order of a traditionally Black Muslim group. The Gnawa are traditionally a mystic order which marks their exclusiveness within Islam and the religious and spiritual components of Gnawa practice incorporates references to their origin and their enslavement.

Third, it denotes the style of music associated with this order. The ancestral memory (turath) of the displaced and enslaved people that were brought to Morocco is preserved mainly in their songs and dances.

Not all blacks in Morocco were slaves that originated from black West Africa. Some blacks were actually native to southern Morocco. Some sources suggest that groups of black people were indigenous of the Draa valley. They were sedentary agriculturists. With the advance of the Romans into the Moroccan interior in the 3rd century B.C.E., the Berbers, who inhabited the coastal areas of the Maghreb of North Africa, may have been forced to move towards the south and competed with the blacks inhabitants in the oases of the Draa, entering into an interdependent or clientele relationship with the Blacks, with the Berbers assuming the patron role.

Etymologically speaking, the meaning of Gnawa likely derives from the Berber word aguinaw, which is connected with skin color. It means “black man” in contrast with the white Berber. This word could be itself the origin of the name Guinea because akal n-iguinamen in Berber means the “land of the black men” just like the Arabic term bilad as-sudan, which means, “land of the black people.” The term was also adopted by the Portuguese and appeared mainly as “Guinea” on European maps dating from the 14th century.

Arabic sources indicate that there was a steady flow of human trafficking across the Saharan desert from the 10th to the 19th centuries. Since the Almoravid dynasty in the 11th century, enslavement, conscription and trade brought people from West Africa (mainly from the area of present-day Mali, Burkina Fasso and Senegal) to the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). These enslaved groups were usually called `abid or sudan, both Arabic words, or else haratin or gnawa, Berber words. We can thus name among the ancestors of the black Moroccans of today the Soninke, the Bambara, the Mossi, the Fulani, and the Hausa. Archival sources indicate the use of blacks in the armies of the Makhzen, the central authority of Morocco, and in many cases, entire garrisons consisted solely of black soldiers. Many dynasties relied on black soldiers to maintain their power.

The first ruling dynasty in Morocco to use a large number of black slaves in the army during the Islamic era was the Almoravids (al-Murabitun). During the Almoravids, the ruler Yusuf Ibn Tashfin “bought a body of black slaves and sent them to al-Andalus.” With the additional troops provided through the slave trade, Almoravids defeated Alfonso VI of Castile in 1086 A.D. at the crucial battle of Zallaqa (near Badajoz). Arabic sources indicate that 4000 black soldiers participated in this famous battle. During the succeeding Almohad dynasty, the rulers had a private garrison of black soldiers, who also served as royal guards and during the rule of Muhammad an-Nasir, around 1200 A.D., their numbers reached 30,000. During this dynasty, the recruitment of enslaved blacks in the government became institutionalized, known as `Abid al-Makhzen, meaning “servants to the government.”

A third dynasty that used a large army of blacks was the Sa‘dis, who under the rule of Mawlay al-Mansur, invaded the Songhay Empire (in present day Mali) in 1591 A.D., which allowed them direct access to acquiring more black slaves for military purposes. In the late 17th century, Mawlay Isma`il gave orders to enslave all blacks including free black people to create his own army. Of course an act completely against the Islamic law, but he did it anyway.

In addition to the conscription of the blacks in the army, enslaved Black West Africans were assigned numerous occupations, including tasks in the home, farm, mines, oases, and ports. In many towns, slaves were primarily women who performed domestic labor or were concubines to the affluent class, while rural slaves were mainly male and worked in farming. Gradually, enslaved black people were freed either by manumission, by running away, or because their masters were forced to grant them freedom under different circumstances. After many generations, these freed black slaves eventually formed their own families and communities, such as those of the Gnawa mystic order.


Elements of pre-Islamic West African animism such as the belief in the spirit world are fundamental to the Gnawa order. For the Gnawa, the spirit world is inhabited by ancestral spirits who, among other spiritual creatures, can be used for either good or evil purposes. Ancestors are believed to act as intermediaries between the living and the supreme god, and the Gnawa communicate with their ancestors through prayer and sacrifice. The spirit world is also invoked through special ceremonies, constituted by drumming, clapping, the sound of the castanets, and dances, all designed to enlist the aid of ancestral saints to protect human beings from evil spirits and other predicaments, such as helping persons recover from an illness or a misfortune. These rites often involve spectacular trances through which contact with and appeal to ancestral spirits may be gained.

Even while adopting Islam, Gnawa did not totally abandon their animist traditions but rather continued to observe ritual possession. They combined Islamic tradition with pre-Islamic African traditions, whether local or sub-Saharan West African. After their conversion to Islam, while probably still in their country of origin, the Gnawa adopted Bilal as their ancestor and saint patron. Bilal was the first black person to convert to Islam and to become a companion of the Prophet Muhammad. Claiming Bilal as a patrilineal figure was not only to emphasize the nobility of belonging to Bilal but also an attempt to legitimize their identity in Islamic terms.


Historically, as a racial minority, the Gnawa suffered much discrimination and injustice at the hands of the Arab-Berber majority within the regions that the Gnawa inhabit. Conscious of their difference and their blackness, they chose Bilal a black man as agnate. Bilal was a special man. Originally from Ethiopia, he was born into slavery. He converted to Islam while still in captivity and was tortured for his conversion by his master Umayya b. Khalaf. When Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, a very close friend to the Prophet Muhammad, heard about the valor of Bilal, he bought him and set him free in the name of Islam. Bilal became the personal servant/assistant of the Prophet. He was also the first muezzin—meaning “caller to prayer”—of the newly established Islamic community in Medina. This special relationship with the Prophet brought Bilal a specialBaraka (a divine blessing). The Gnawa have constructed their Islamic identity by emphasizing a privileged status among Muslims – they converted to Islam even before Quraysh, the tribe to whom Muhammad belonged. Hence, it is not surprising to find the name of Bilal in many Gnawa songs. Additionally, to honor their spiritual and emotional link with Bilal and Islam, the Gnawa built a unique shrine in Essaouira dedicated to Bilal: the Zawiya Sidna Bilal, a place to celebrate their culture. Bilal is the symbol of the dialectic between Diaspora and homeland.

The Gnawa are a diasporic culture and one finds artistic and spiritual parallels between the Gnawa order and other spiritual black groups in Africa such as the bori in Nigeria and the stambouli in Tunisia, thesambani in Libya, the bilali in Algeria, and also outside Africa as in the case of the vodoun religion practiced in Caribbean countries (vodoun is a mix of Roman Catholic ritual elements and traditional rituals from Dahomey). The similarities in the artistic, spiritual and scriptural (e.g. related to Abrahamic written traditions) representations seem to reflect a shared experience of many African diasporic groups. The belief in possession and trance is crucial to Gnawa religious life. Music has served a patterned function in this belief and it is intrinsically linked to the Gnawa religious rituals and to their specific historic and cultural memories. It is their specific historic and cultural memories celebrated and invoked in songs, dances and musical chants that the Gnawa claim to provide access to the spiritual realm.

The Gnawa have influenced other Berber/Arab mystic orders or brotherhoods, as in the case of the Issawiya (16th century) and Hamdushiya (17th century). These brotherhoods added new elements to the usual sufi devotional rituals, such as trances and contacts with spirits, most likely influenced by contact with the Gnawa order. But these Zawaya and other sufi Berber or Arabic orders have been far more socially accepted within the regions where they are found than that of the Gnawa. The Gnawa, as a spiritual order within Moroccan Islamic society, was marginalized and is still marginal. Through their musical ceremonies and trances, they claim to cure insanity and free people from malign influences. They believe that God is too powerful for bi-lateral communication and direct manifestation and thus God can only be reached through spiritual manifestations in our world. Hence, the Gnawa are generally not considered a mystic order proper because they do not seek the conventional personal union with the divine but rather contact with the spirit world which acts as an intermediary through which contact with the divine may be accomplished.

The Gnawa have found legitimacy for their cultural distinctiveness within the regions and societies they inhabit even given their unusual and often marginalized religious rites, ceremonies, and musical practices. The images conveyed in their songs construct a coherent representation of displacement, dispossession, deprivation, misery and nostalgia for a land and a former life kept alive through their unique musical and ceremonial practices. The historical experience of the Gnawa sketched in this essay is very similar to those found in all forced diasporas. Through their ceremonies, their songs and gatherings, these people made restitution not of an “imagined community” but a real one to reconcile a fragmented past. The Gnawa provide a fascinating story of how they re/constructed their identity against a broken cultural continuity.

The Gnawa have, over many generations, productively negotiated their forced presence in Morocco to create acceptance and group solidarity. Unlike the conventional question in Black America, “Who are we?,” the Gnawa ask, “Who have we become?” Similar to the model of “creolization” – the integration of freed black slaves into the French cultural landscape of the American state of Louisiana , the Gnawa have created a model of their own creolization and integration into the Moroccan social landscape. This is one of the most crucial and striking differences between blacks in America and blacks in Morocco.

Over the past fifty years in North Africa, Gnawa music, like the blues in America, has spread and attracted practitioners from other ethnic groups, in this case Berber and Arab. Although most present-day Gnawa musicians are metisse and speak Arabic and Berber, some West African religious words and phrases do survive even though their meaning is lost. In Morocco, Gnawa music is found mainly where black people live in a relatively large number; large enough to form a distinctive community like the ones in Marrakech and Essaouira. These two cities are known historically to have had slave markets connected to the trans-Saharan slave trade.

Gnawa people have created a distinct space in Moroccan society. They play a social and spiritual role and in recent decades have become well-known public performers. Public, non-ceremonial performances outside the Gnawa mystic order is a recent development. In order to survive, the Gnawa have turned the mystical aspect of their music into a musical art. In the 1970’s, when the only popular music available was the Middle Eastern type, some Moroccan artists start to look into other Moroccan traditions. Some of the best examples are Nass al-Ghiwan who were inspired by the Gnawa mystic order to create an original Moroccan pop music. One of the members of the band was Abd er-Rahman Paco who was himself a Gnawa master musician from Essaouira. Gnawa music has engendered a popular style of pop music for mere entertainment such as Nass al-Ghiwan and Jil-Jilala. These two bands were the most listened to in Morocco in the 70’s and 80’s. In the 90’s, other groups emerged such as Nass Marrakech who blend traditional music with new songs that connect with contemporary themes and audiences. Yet, for the Gnawa, their music is primarily spiritual and used for healing purposes.


However, curiously, Gnawa music, similar to jazz in America, is not recognized as a national music. The national Moroccan music is the Andalusian music, which developed, in “Muslim” and came to with the expulsion of the Moors in 1502 A.D.. Gnawa music has inspired the development of popular Moroccan music in general and is analogically similar to the African-American spirituals, gospels, and eventually the genre known as “the blues,” also founded by former slaves. Gnawa music provides a perspective through which we may view the history of blacks in . It is a medium to discover and recover the African roots that still live on in Morocco.

Recently, Western musicians interested in African traditional music, have “discovered” the music of the Gnawa. As a result, many collaborations have ensued with famous jazz artists such as Randy Weston. The Gnawa are modernizing their style to make it more secular and with more commercial appeal. With these recent developments and their appeal to tourists, the Moroccan government in 1997established The Gnawa and World Music Festival in Essaouira.


Q&A with Banning Eyre

B.E: What do we know about slavery in Morocco before the Arabs came, even before the Romans came?

Chouki el Hamel:
There was always slavery. Berbers were slaving blacks. Blacks were also enslaving other people. But before the coming of the Arabs, black West Africa was not perceived like a huge pool of slaves. It did not have great slave markets. That was a development that came with the Islamization of Africa. So with the Islamization of Africa there was an increase of the trans-Saharan trade. It is the conquest, actually, that stimulated this need for black soldiers. So there was a huge demand for enslaved people from West Africa. And why? It is because, legally, you can slave only people perceived to be “pagan.” And the area that was perceived to be “pagan” was the area of the Sudan and beyond that.
The race question came during the Crusades where Europe emerged as a strong power, and basically, the enslaved people who came from areas in Europe were diminishing. So the Arabs and Berbers dynasties that ruled North Africa turned, of course, south. And then slowly it became color slavery. So that is why I have said that in many dynasties, that ruled Morocco for instance, they relied on black soldiers. And during Mawlay Isma`il, it went even further because he enslaved all blacks, including the free ones, including the Muslims. That is an act that is actually outright illegal in Islam, but he did it. But the muftis, judges and scholars of Islam in Fez were against that. They went against the voices that had influence on the society, they were sometimes killed. We have evidence that one of them was killed. His name is Gassus. He was a very strong voice against the enslavement black Muslims.


B.E: How, ultimately, did slavery disappear from Morocco?


Chouki el Hamel:
I don’t know of any text that formerly and officially abolished slavery. Slavery just went away with the coming of the colonization in 1912. Slowly, and gradually, slavery just died. It stopped existing because it was no longer needed. For instance, I’ll give you just one example. In the south of Morocco, until recently under colonialism, the black people, especially Haratin in the southern oases, in the area of Aqqa or Tata, blacks did not own land. The Berbers owned the land. Some were not slaves, but they worked as sharecroppers. And they were called khammasin. They worked as farmers on the land that belonged to the Berbers, and they got a fifth of the harvest. But they never owned the land. And it is through colonization, when the capitalist system was introduced, and cash was introduced, some of these black people who worked as sharecroppers went to Europe. They were able to have enough cash to buy the land. So it was through colonialism and the general capitalist system that these people who were marginalized, who were not entitled to own land, they suddenly had cash. And cash of course is power. So they bought land, and this has created a social mobility in the south of Morocco.

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Swenet
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@typeZeiss

I'm just reporting what the data says. If you have data supporting a different view, feel free to share it. This is the sample I was referring to a moment ago.

Quote:
"Different Mozabite individuals within our sample had different estimates of sub-Saharan African ancestry proportions, with a majority at close to 20%, but several individuals having a somewhat higher fraction. Exploration of the causes of this variation (Figure 7) revealed a systematic tendency for those individuals with higher proportions of sub-Saharan African ancestry to have large (tens of megabases) segments in their genome with an African origin. Such large segments are only consistent with admixture within the last 20–30 generations, showing the admixture process has continued into more recent times. In fact, the individual with the highest estimated proportion (75%) of sub-Saharan African ancestry had at least one inferred non-European chromosome throughout virtually their entire genome (Figure 7), consistent with admixture in the last generation, and demonstrating that the admixture process continues today in the Mozabite population."

http://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/artiid=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000519

The data shows that, today at least, it's not a good assumptation that dark skin in the Maghreb always correlates with Amazigh ancestry.

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Swenet
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@typeZeis

The original Amazigh either ARE, or were related to, these people. It makes the same migration from the eastern Sahara as Berber speakers and around the same time. It also has contact with the ancestors of West Africans and spills over into Europe via the strait of Gibraltar, so the parallels with the first Berber speakers are numerous.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25130626

This signal is extremely weak in modern day Berber speakers. It's almost completely replaced by Iberian, West/Central African and local Maghrebi haplogroup contributions. When you filter out the Eurasian mtDNA contributions of Maghrebis they cluster with West/Central Africans.

I've yet to see a single Maghrebi sample that doesn't conform to this general picture. Attributing all dark skin in the Maghreb to a pure Amazigh population therefore doesn't seem supported.

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quote:
Originally posted by typeZeiss:
Xyyman a black amazigh means exactly what it sounds like. A amazigh that is black as opposed to a white or half caste one. Amazigh is no a monolithic group.


Anyone know of any studies that have looked soecorocly at black amazigh groups?

Berbers are Berbers, there is not such thing as black ethnicity
Berber studies in general. Unless they speak of certain ethnicities, you can figure that out for yourself.

Haratin have a inherited craft, which is a agriculture, so the are looked down upon. The whole "slave claim" is a distortion of history and ethnography.

quote:

Haplogroup E


Haplogroup E is the most frequent haplogroup in Africa, but is also found in the Middle East, southern Europe and Asia (Cruciani et al., 2002; Semino et al., 2004; Karafet et al., 2008). Among its sub-clades, E-M81 and E-M78 seem to be of North African origin with Paleolithic and Neolithic expansions that reached surrounding areas (Arredi et al., 2004; Cruciani et al., 2007).

Firstly, E-M81 is the most common haplogroup in North Africa showing its highest concentrations in Northwestern Africa (76 % in Saharawis in Morocco (Arredi et al., 2004)) with cline frequencies decreasing eastward: Algeria (45 %), Libya (34 %) and Egypt (10 %) (Robino et al., 2008; Triki-Fendri et al., submitted; Arredi et al., 2004).


Besides, Ottoni et al., (2011) have reported that E-M81 appear to constitute a common paternal genetic matrix in the Tuareg populations where it was encountered at high frequency (89 %).

Hence, the distribution of this haplogroup in Africa closely matches the present area of Berber-speaking population’s allocation on the continent, suggesting a close haplogroup-ethnic group parallelism (Bosch et al., 2001; Cruciani et al., 2002; 2004; Arredi et al., 2004; Fadhlaoui-Zid et al., 2011; Bekada et al., 2013). However, knowing that the Berber dialects have been replaced by Arabic in North African populations, carriers of E-M81 haplogroup are currently Arab-speaking peoples whose ancestors were Berber-speaking.


Outside of Africa, E-M81 is almost absent in the Middle East and in Europe (with the exception of Iberia and Sicily). The presence of E-M81 in the Iberian Peninsula (12 % in southern Portugal) (Cruciani et al., 2004) has been attributed to trans-Mediterranean contacts linked to the Islamic influence, since it is typically Berber (Bosch et al., 2001; Semino et al., 2004; Beleza et al., 2006; Alvarez et al., 2009; Cruciani et al., 2007; Trombetta et al., 2011).

—S Triki-Fendri, A Rebai 2015

Synthetic review on the genetic relatedness between North Africa and Arabia deduced from paternal lineage distributions

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quote:
Originally posted by typeZeiss:
Xyyman a black amazigh means exactly what it sounds like. A amazigh that is black as opposed to a white or half caste one. Amazigh is no a monolithic group.


Anyone know of any studies that have looked soecorocly at black amazigh groups?

quote:
"In particular, the Tuareg have 50% to 80% of their paternal lineages E1b1b1b-M81 [34], [35]. The Tuareg are seminomadic pastoralist groups that are mostly spread between Libya, Algeria, Mali, and Niger. They speak a Berber language and are believed to be the descendents of the Garamantes people of Fezzan, Libya (500 BC - 700 CE) [34]."
--Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2013)

Genome-Wide and Paternal Diversity Reveal a Recent Origin of Human Populations in North Africa

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the lioness,
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quote:
Originally posted by Ish Gebor:

The whole "slave claim" is a distortion of history and ethnography.


^ LIE

and no sources

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the lioness,
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
When you filter out the Eurasian mtDNA contributions of Maghrebis they cluster with West/Central Africans.

I've yet to see a single Maghrebi sample that doesn't conform to this general picture.

If you filter out Eurasian mtDNA you are left with M81
M81 most likely emerged from its parent clade M35 the parent clade of E-M78 which originated in East Africa

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Swenet
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What do you mean "if you filter out Eurasian mtDNA you're left with E-M81"? Are you suggesting that they only have Eurasian mtDNAs?
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the lioness,
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
What do you mean "if you filter out Eurasian mtDNA you're left with E-M81"? Are you suggesting that they only have Eurasian mtDNAs?

you're right they have some L
but also lot of H
Looking at the paternal it's believed to have East origin

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Swenet
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Those L mtDNAs cluster them with West/Central Africans, not East Africans. So, in terms of mtDNAs, they are not the population they were when they migrated west. M81 also has no evidence of representating that westward migration ~7kya. It's cline is opposite of what we'd expect in that scenario. In fact, its cline is most similar to U6's cline and therefore much more consistent with Iberomaurusians than Berber speakers.

I personally think E-M78 (V65) tracks their movements in North Africa. I'm not completely ruling out that Berber speakers were also M81, but I think a much stronger case can be made for a much older presence in the Maghreb for that hg.

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BrandonP
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
Those L mtDNAs cluster them with West/Central Africans, not East Africans. So, in terms of mtDNAs, they are not the population they were when they migrated west. M81 also has no evidence of representating that westward migration ~7kya. It's cline is opposite of what we'd expect in that scenario. In fact, its cline is most similar to U6's cline and therefore much more consistent with Iberomaurusians than Berber speakers.

I personally think E-M78 (V65) tracks their movements in North Africa. I'm not completely ruling out that Berber speakers were also M81, but I think a much stronger case can be made for a much older presence in the Maghreb for that hg.

Do you think it is possible that the people who brought proto-Berber languages to the Maghreb were affiliated to West rather than Northeast Africans? We know from the example of Chadic that West Africans can acquire Afroasiatic languages. I don't mean to propose this was the exact same movement that brought Berber to the Maghreb, only to suggest that not every presence of AA languages in a region necessitates a direct migration of Northeast African-affiliated people into that area.

I think I remember you saying somewhere that certain sub-Saharan mtDNA haplogroups in North Africa came in that area after 10,000 years ago (i.e. during the Green Sahara), but I am not sure where you said it.

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Doug M
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The problem in north Africa since the saharan wet phase is that it has been sparsely populated. This makes it very easy for "outside" groups to have a bigger impact on local populations than if the area was originally more densely populated. Not only that, but you are talking about pockets of HIGHLY MOBILE populations spread over a very large area (the Sahara is larger than the continental United States). Therefore it it very difficult to say precisely what the dominant genetic signature was of any Africans migrating westward from the East bringing Berber languages with them. Distinguishing what genes they originally had starting in the East and then what genes they picked up as they moved west and interacted with other population remnants such as those of the central Sahara responsible for the black mummies there, followed by what other immigrants introduced during the Roman and Islamic era is difficult.

Well it is difficult if you rely on the biased sampling as found in modern day scholarship. The only way to get a better picture of this is to sample more of the scattered populations across the Sahara not simply those on the extreme coasts and certain populations Far away in "sub Saharan" Africa. All the various small population centers from Southern Tunisia into the Ahoggar mountains and regions into Northern Mali, Chad, Niger, Mauritania, Sudan and so forth would have to be Sampled. But that kind of sample data set has yet to be captured.

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@Nodnarb

Most of these L lineages do not look like they come from the east. They support West/Central African migration. Look at the nearest haplotypes and distribution patterns. These lineages have already been analyzed by many papers discussed over years. In some cases entire papers have been devoted to origin of a single North African L lineage and generally the verdict was south to north migration.

Quote:
"In this article, we examine human dispersals across the Sahara through the analysis of the sub-Saharan mtDNA haplogroup L3e5, which is not only commonly found in the Lake Chad Basin (∼17%), but which also attains nonnegligible frequencies (∼10%) in some Northwestern African populations. Age estimates point to its origin ∼10 ka, probably directly in the Lake Chad Basin, where the clade occurs across linguistic boundaries. The virtual absence of this specific haplogroup in Daza from Northern Chad and all West African populations suggests that its migration took place elsewhere, perhaps through Northern Niger."

http://www.paris-iea.fr/en/publications/the-genetic-impact-of-the-lake-chad-basin-population-in-north-africa-as-documented-by-mitochondrial-diversity-and-internal-variation-of-the- l3e5-haplogroup-2

Of course, not all their L lineages fit this pattern. But most do.

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BrandonP
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
@Nodnarb

Most of these L lineages do not look like they come from the east. They support West/Central African migration. Look at the nearest haplotypes and distribution patterns. These lineages have already been analyzed by many papers discussed over years. In some cases entire papers have been devoted to origin of a single North African L lineage and the verdict was south to north migration.

http://www.paris-iea.fr/en/publications/the-genetic-impact-of-the-lake-chad-basin-population-in-north-africa-as-documented-by-mitochondrial-diversity-and-internal-variation-of-the- l3e5-haplogroup-2

Of course, not all L lineages they have fit this pattern. But most do.

So given that, do you think my suggestion that Afrasan languages were spread to the Maghreb via West African-affiliated proxies is possible?
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@Nodnarb

Everthing is possible. But how would you make that work given the data we have to work with?

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BrandonP
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
@Nodnarb

Everthing is possible. But how would you make that work given the data we have to work with?

You said there was a south-to-north migration to the Maghreb, and that this movement's ancestry would have been closer to West/Central than Northeast Africans. We know that Afroasiatic would have ultimately come from a more southerly latitude in the African continent, and we also know that there are West African populations that have acquired Afroasiatic languages (the Chadic family). So if there was a movement of West Africans into the Maghreb around the same time Afroasiatic is supposed to have spread there (e.g. the Green Saharan period), don't you think there could be a chance those West Africans had earlier acquired an Afroasiatic language ancestral to Berber, in an analogous situation to the acquisition of Chadic by other West African groups?

 -

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Swenet
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Bro, I'm not entertaining thin air possibilities when I have tangible things like E-V264 as a clade that unites Berber E-V65 and 'Chadic' E-V259. I have Canary Island 'aDNA' showing me I'm on the right track given their substantial proportion of E-V65. I have nothing that even remotely points in the direction of the picture you're painting. I prefer to go with where the data takes me.

But if you feel that's worth pursuing, you can try to build a case with the data we have accumulated over the years.

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BrandonP
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^ Never mind then. I simply wanted to ask if you knew anything that would preclude my scenario.
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Why not use data like Hirbo and Boattini et al 2013. We can't just hit the reset button and start from scratch when there is a whole literature to help you screen your ideas. Why don't you use those papers?
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
Why not use data like Hirbo and Boattini et al 2013. We can't just hit the reset button and start from scratch when there is a whole literature to help you screen your ideas. Why don't you use those papers?

Look, you obviously know all this stuff better than I do. All I had meant to do was ask you whether you thought the scenario in question was possible or likely, based on what you knew that I didn't. It's not like I'm prepared to seriously argue that scenario. That's why I presented it as a question.
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Ish Geber
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quote:
Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:
Originally posted by Ish Gebor:

The whole "slave claim" is a distortion of history and ethnography.


^ LIE

and no sources

Personal experience.lol So it is YOU who lies, as usual!
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quote:
Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
What do you mean "if you filter out Eurasian mtDNA you're left with E-M81"? Are you suggesting that they only have Eurasian mtDNAs?

you're right they have some L
but also lot of H
Looking at the paternal it's believed to have East origin

H has been suggested to be from local evolution, like M-E81. But still, most carry the L markers.

If those who carry the L marker predominantly, got there due to slavery, explain the following. lol


quote:
Our objective is to highlight the age of sub-Saharan gene flows in North Africa and particularly in Tunisia. Therefore we analyzed in a broad phylogeographic context sub-Saharan mtDNA haplogroups of Tunisian Berber populations considered representative of ancient settlement. More than 2,000 sequences were collected from the literature, and networks were constructed. The results show that the most ancient haplogroup is L3*, which would have been introduced to North Africa from eastern sub-Saharan populations around 20,000 years ago. Our results also point to a less ancient western sub-Saharan gene flow to Tunisia, including haplogroups L2a and L3b. This conclusion points to an ancient African gene flow to Tunisia before 20,000 BP. These findings parallel the more recent findings of both archaeology and linguistics on the prehistory of Africa. The present work suggests that sub-Saharan contributions to North Africa have experienced several complex population processes after the occupation of the region by anatomically modern humans. Our results reveal that Berber speakers have a foundational biogeographic root in Africa and that deep African lineages have continued to evolve in supra-Saharan Africa.

--Frigi S1, Cherni L, Fadhlaoui-Zid K, Benammar-Elgaaied A.

Hum Biol. 2010 Aug;82(4):367-84. doi: 10.3378/027.082.0402.
Ancient local evolution of African mtDNA haplogroups in Tunisian Berber populations.


quote:
By 15,000 YBP the Mechtoïdes, also known as Ibero Maurisans, appear (Bedoui, 2002). This group had anatomical similarities with the European Cro Magnons who expanded in Iberia during the same period. Before 9,000 years ago, the Sahara went through a wet period (Aumassip et al., 1988) which allowed several mesolithic cultures to flourish. The local population in Tunisia at that time may have coexisted with and mixed with sub-Saharan migrants (Dutour et al., 1988). Around 8,000 YBP a proto-Mediterranean community known as Capsian (Camps, 1968, 1975; Camps 8208;Fabrer, 1989; Hachid, 2000) arrived and spread widely in what is now Tunisia. Many relics of this group are found in Gafsa, a town in southern Tunisia. The Capsians could have undergone admixture with preexisting populations or else replaced them. Since 4,000 YBP, Berbers have expanded through all of North Africa. The term Berber refers to a heterogeneous group of indigenous peoples of North Africa who vary ethnically and culturally (Collignon, 1886). In present day Tunisia, two main Berber tribes are distinguished–the Zenata and the Ketama–although in some areas other groups are more commonly found. For instance, the Accaras tribes, originally from the Western Sahara, live in southern Tunisia near Smar.'

'The southern part of Tunisia's population is genetically similar to the Libyan population since the two areas contain the same tribes. The Libyan population is primarily of Berber origin; the name is taken from a particular Berber tribe—the “Libou” which means free man. More than 20% of the population speaks an Amazigh language.

[...]

Even with such a rich and complex demographic history the human populations living north of the Sahara desert in Africa have received little attention in published population genetics studies. More specifically, numerous studies targeting particular genes, especially those suspected to be of clinical interest, have accumulated in the scientific literature on particular North African populations, but as yet few studies of North African populations incorporating large sets of DNA polymorphisms exist. One of two recent exceptions is the report by Henn et al. (2012) which does sample a large number of autosomal SNPs from seven locations in North Africa with about 18 individuals from each site; however, the study has a limited number of comparative population samples from nearby geographical regions. Their work supports the presence of indigenous genomic variation extending back 12 to 40 thousand years ago with ancient gene flow in different periods from south of the Sahara, Southwest Asia, and Europe. The study of Bekada et al. (2015) studied mtDNA, Y-chromosome, and autosomal DNA markers on several hundred individuals from four locations in Algeria.

[...]

In general, the North African populations have a higher average heterozygosity compared with the other major world regions (except for the South Central Asians which are comparable) for both the 299 and 90 marker datasets. The average F st of the SNPs is 0.28 for the 65 population analysis.

[...]

The eight Tunisian and Libyan population samples cluster together between the populations of sub Saharan Africa and Southwest Asia in each of the two dimensional views summarized by the PCA figures but they are closer to the Southwest Asians and the populations of the southern or Mediterranean part of Europe. The North Africans are closest to that part of the sub Saharan cluster containing the Ethiopian
Jews, African Americans, and some of the populations of East Africa and farthest from the West and Central African populations in the dataset.

[...]

Indeed, uniparental genetic data support the arrival of sub Saharans around 20,000 years ago according to Frigi et al. (2010). Other studies show that the introduction of sub Saharan mtDNA lineages in North Africa is older than 30,000 YBP (Soares et al., 2012). The mixture between Iberian and sub Saharan Saharan populations was described in papers such as Periera et al. (2010), but more studies are needed to substantiate that mixture.

[...]

Recent studies (Henn et al., 2012; Bekada et al., 2015) have already supported the role of migrations during pre‐history and more recent eras affecting the development of human populations in North Africa. Botigué et al. (2013) explored the evidence for gene flow from North Africa and its possible effect on genetic variation in southern Europe.

--Sabeh Frigi, Lotfi Cherni et al.

Genetic variation in Tunisia in the context of human diversity worldwide

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 161:62–71 (2016)

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Ish Geber
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quote:
Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:
Originally posted by typeZeiss:
[s this looking specifically at black amazighs?

The Amazigh groups on Morocco contain a variety of skin colors and hair types within each one so you are not going to find a study on "black amazighs".
The term Hartania (Haratin) is used for Southern Moroccan groups of the Tata region who are strongly mixed with black populations. Little is known about their origins.


quote:
The Berbers constitute the main genetic background of the North African population as a whole even though in historical times several substantial migrations occurred into the region from Middle Eastern populations and elsewhere. Migrations during the historical period enriched the North African populations rather than replaced them. For many markers analyzed, North African populations display intermediate frequencies between European and African populations, possibly reflecting ancient as well as known historical admixture along with genetic drift. During the thousands of years of development a variety of populations contributed at different levels not only to allelic diversity of North Africa but also to different amounts of linkage disequilibrium between markers that are physically close to one another. Recombination events over many human generations should have generated new haplotypes that should be specific to the North African region; see Supporting Information Figures S14, S15 for some examples.

[...]

DISCUSSION

The PCA (Fig. ​(Fig.2),2), STRUCTURE (Fig. ​(Fig.3)3) and population tree (Fig. ​(Fig.6)6) results on 65 populations clearly show that the Tunisian and Libyan populations in North Africa represent a distinctive regional pattern of human genetic variation in the context of a broad sampling of human populations worldwide. Similar PCA and STRUCTURE analyses on a subset of 90 polymorphisms that add an additional seven populations from elsewhere in North Africa (Morocco to Egypt) generate comparable results (Supporting Information Figs. S3–S6). The more focused STRUCTURE results on 40 populations (Fig. ​(Fig.5)5) studied on 299 polymorphisms do not reveal any additional subclustering within the North African area for the genetic variation sampled by the 399 autosomal SNPs in this study. In the context of worldwide variation the Tunisian and Libyan groups appear to be very homogeneous. However, PCA analyses limited to North Africa and also North Africa with some SW Asian groups as outliers (Supporting Information Figs. S18–S21) reveal that even within the relatively small zone represented by Tunisia the local populations are different from one another. Including the seven North African populations from Henn et al. (2012) in similar restricted PCA analyses (based on 90 polymorphisms) also provides evidence of the diversity of the populations within the North African region (Supporting Information Figs. S22, S23), although no simple geographical patterns emerge.

A reasonable ancient settlement scenario for North Africa–based on various studies with different types of markers could be proposed as follows. Berbers arose from ancient events across North Africa with various sub‐regional differences. The autosomal SNPs analyzed here are not able to give a clear picture of what those pre‐historic events were. The Berbers constitute the main genetic background of the North African population as a whole even though in historical times several substantial migrations occurred into the region from Middle Eastern populations and elsewhere. Migrations during the historical period enriched the North African populations rather than replaced them. For many markers analyzed, North African populations display intermediate frequencies between European and African populations, possibly reflecting ancient as well as known historical admixture along with genetic drift. During the thousands of years of development a variety of populations contributed at different levels not only to allelic diversity of North Africa but also to different amounts of linkage disequilibrium between markers that are physically close to one another. Recombination events over many human generations should have generated new haplotypes that should be specific to the North African region; see Supporting Information Figures S14, S15 for some examples. Along with recombination, some specific and founder mutations, also described in the published literature, are in agreement with a common and ancient North African genetic background. All these demographicevents lead to the findings in the present study that North Africa constitutes a distinct population genetic entity.

Population migrations within and between the geographical regions during pre‐history and historical times have certainly made North Africa a cross‐road of change—culturally and genetically. The positioning of the North African groups studied near the core of the tree is consistent with this. The heterozygosity evidence is supportive of a complex history for North African populations. Divergent theories on the peopling of North Africa exist to explain the accumulated evidence from different research areas. There are those who say that a civilization radiated to North Africa 40,000 years ago built by the Aterian, after which North Africa was depopulated (see the introduction to Rando et al., 1998). Indeed, uniparental genetic data support the arrival of sub‐Saharans around 20,000 years ago according to Frigi et al. (2010). Other studies show that the introduction of sub‐Saharan mtDNA lineages in North Africa is older than 30,000 YBP (Soares et al., 2012). The mixture between Iberian and sub‐Saharan Saharan populations was described in papers such as Periera et al. (2010), but more studies are needed to substantiate that mixture.

The set of 399 autosomal SNPs studied here on 65 populations were not specifically selected to differentiate the Tunisian and Libyan populations representing North Africa from populations in other regions of the world. The DNA markers genotyped on the eight populations from North Africa had already been typed on the 57 reference populations. They are a subset of markers that had accumulated across a number of research projects and were originally selected for study most often because they had been shown to be highly heterozygous on average in most regions of the world or sometimes in a particular geographical region. The STRUCTURE analyses (Supporting Information Fig. S6) on 73 populations (with 15 populations sampled across North Africa) reinforce the idea that North Africa is not only genetically diverse but also a distinctive world region for human variation. More systematic studies—better, denser sampling of populations across North Africa as well as larger DNA marker sets—will likely be interesting and they will also make it easier to identify subsets of markers that differentiate North Africa from other world regions as well as markers that may show distinctive patterns within North Africa. Small, efficient sets of SNPs and other classes of DNA markers emerging from such efforts would be of benefit in a variety of areas such as anthropological research of normal human variation and ancestry, medical studies searching for common disease‐related mutations, and forensic applications identifying human remains in natural and man‐made disasters such as airline crashes, battle field casualties, and the victims and perpetrators of terrorist bombing events. Such work can also help fine tune studies that throw more light on the evolution of modern human populations. Recent studies (Henn et al., 2012; Bekada et al., 2015) have already supported the role of migrations during pre‐history and more recent eras affecting the development of human populations in North Africa. Botigué et al. (2013) explored the evidence for gene flow from North Africa and its possible effect on genetic variation in southern Europe. If, as some recent papers have suggested (Osborne et al., 2008; Balter, 2011), early human waves of migration out of Africa could have originated in part from North Africa before the formation of the Sahara desert, then the only way to help validate this is via empirical evidence that characterizes the autochthonous genome patterns still discernible in current day populations from across North Africa so that they can be compared to the descendant groups in other world regions. Broad‐based evidence is needed. Simple characterizations of groups and regions based on limited initial information is understandable, but will need to be updated and new perspectives obtained by additional analyses. For example, Sanchez‐Quinto et al. (2012) characterize the Tunisian population as homogeneous and inbred based on a small relatively inbred Tunisian sample reported by Henn et al. (2012); but that broad characterization is now untenable in the context of our more extensive sampling of populations in Tunisia which shows that the Henn et al. Tunisian sample is something of an outlier for Tunisia as a whole.

North Africa is certainly not the only world region deserving more intensive study by population genetics. The present study and other recent studies by Henn et al. (2012) and Fadhlaoui‐Zid et al. (2015) indicate that the effort has the potential to yield important new understanding of the genetic history of North Africa and adjacent regions.


--Sabeh Frigi, Lotfi Cherni et al.

Genetic variation in Tunisia in the context of human diversity worldwide

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 161:62–71 (2016)


One can only wonder who is truly mixed. [Big Grin]

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quote:
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup L2 originated in Western Africa but is nowadays spread across the entire continent.


MtDNA haplogroup L2 is the sister branch of the Eastern African L3′4′6 clade that contains all the OOA diversity within haplogroup L3. While L3′4′6 originated in Eastern Africa22, haplogroup L2 probably originated in Western Africa but is nowadays widespread across the continent; it is highly frequent in many regions, such as in Western/Central and Southeast Africa (probably associated with the Bantu expansion that occurred in the last few millennia) and in Northwest, most likely due to trans-Saharan slave trade18, 25. [Big Grin]


Together with haplogroup L3, it represents ~70% of sub-Saharan mtDNA variation but despite its high frequency and wide distribution, L2 was not involved in the OOA 26, since most likely it was not yet arrived in Eastern Africa by that time.


The demographic history of L2 is not yet completely understood, especially concerning the age of the expansion into Eastern Africa, a region that might have acted as a refuge during some severe episodes of climate oscillations over the last hundred thousand years27. One possibility is that the expansion of L2 to the East, most likely as with the expansion to the South, was related with movements of Bantu-speaking populations. However, in the regions of highest frequency of L2 in Eastern Africa (over 30%, in the area of Sudan and Ethiopia)13 there are no records of Bantu groups. Furthermore, recent evidence from HVS-I13 suggests that this haplogroup might have first expanded to Eastern Africa much earlier, possibly due to the improvement of climate conditions during the early Holocene. This signal was also observed with Bayesian analysis of L2 (and L2a) complete sequences28. Moreover, particular clades of L2a and L2c suggest an expansion, possibly along the Sahel corridor, after the LGM18. Migrations at this time frame are also observed in branches of other African haplogroups, such as L0a, L1b and L3f2, 12, 18, 29.



http://www.nature.com/srep/2015/150727/srep12526/full/srep12526.html
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quote:
originally posted by Ish Gebor:
H has been suggested to be from local evolution, like M-E81. But still, most carry the L markers.

"Most carry L lineages"? "H local evolution". Hmm interesting.
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
quote:
originally posted by Ish Gebor:
H has been suggested to be from local evolution, like M-E81. But still, most carry the L markers.

"Most carry L lineages"? "H local evolution". Hmm interesting.
quote:

Whereas inferred IBD sharing does not indicate directionality, the North African samples that have highest IBD sharing with Iberian populations also tend to have the lowest proportion of the European cluster in ADMIXTURE (Fig. 1), e.g., Saharawi, Tunisian Berbers, and South Moroccans. For example, the Andalucians share many IBD segments with the Tunisians (Fig. 3), who present extremely minimal levels of European ancestry. This suggests that gene flow occurred from Africa to Europe rather than the other way around.

[...]

Alternative models of gene flow: Migration(s) from the Near East likely have had an effect on genetic diversity between southern and northern Europe (discussed below), but do not appear to explain the gradients of African ancestry in Europe. A model of gene flow from the Near East into both Europe and North Africa, such as a strong demic wave during the Neolithic, could result in shared haplotypes between Europe and North Africa. However, we observe haplotype sharing between Europe and the Near East follows a southeast to southwest gradient, while sharing between Europe and the Maghreb follows the opposite pattern (Fig. 2); this suggests that gene flow from the Near East cannot account for the sharing with North Africa.

[...]

A model of gene flow from the Near East into both Europe and North Africa, such as a strong demic wave during the Neolithic, could result in shared haplotypes between Europe and North Africa. However, we observe haplotype sharing between Europe and the Near East follows a southeast to southwest gradient, while sharing between Europe and the Maghreb follows the opposite pattern (Fig. 2); this suggests that gene flow from the Near East cannot account for the sharing with North Africa.


--Laura R. Botiguéa,1, Brenna M. Henn et al

Gene flow from North Africa contributes to differential human genetic diversity in southern Europe (July 16, 2013)


quote:
Haplogroup H dominates present-day Western European mitochondrial DNA variability (>40%), yet was less common (~19%) among Early Neolithic farmers (~5450 BC) and virtually absent in Mesolithic hunter-gatherers.

Here we investigate this major component of the maternal population history of modern Europeans and sequence 39 complete haplogroup H mitochondrial genomes from ancient human remains. We then compare this 'real-time' genetic data with cultural changes taking place between the Early Neolithic (~5450 BC) and Bronze Age (~2200 BC) in Central Europe. Our results reveal that the current diversity and distribution of haplogroup H were largely established by the Mid Neolithic (~4000 BC), but with substantial genetic contributions from subsequent pan-European cultures such as the Bell Beakers expanding out of Iberia in the Late Neolithic (~2800 BC). Dated haplogroup H genomes allow us to reconstruct the recent evolutionary history of haplogroup H and reveal a mutation rate 45% higher than current estimates for human mitochondria.

--Brotherton P1, Haak W, Templeton J,

Nat Commun. 2013;4:1764. doi: 10.1038/ncomms2656.

Neolithic mitochondrial haplogroup H genomes and the genetic origins of Europeans.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23612305


quote:


The Mesolithic–Neolithic transition in southern Iberia

Resumen: New data and a review of historiographic information from Neolithic sites of the Malaga and Algarve coasts (southern Iberian Peninsula) and from the Maghreb (North Africa) reveal the existence of a Neolithic settlement at least from 7.5 cal ka BP. The agricultural and pastoralist food producing economy of that population rapidly replaced the coastal economies of the Mesolithic populations. The timing of this population and economic turnover coincided withmajor changes in the continental and marine ecosystems, including upwelling intensity, sea-level changes and increased aridity in the Sahara and along the Iberian coast. These changes likely impacted the subsistence strategies of the Mesolithic populations along the Iberian seascapes and resulted in abandonments manifested as sedimentary hiatuses in some areas during the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition. The rapid expansion and area of dispersal of the early Neolithic traits suggest the use of marine technology. Different evidences for a Maghrebian origin for the first colonists have been summarized.


The recognition of an early North-African Neolithic influence in Southern Iberia and the Maghreb is vital for understanding the appearance and development of the Neolithic in Western Europe. Our review suggests links between climate change, resource allocation, and population turnover.

--Cortés-Sánchez, Miguel Et al.

The Mesolithic–Neolithic transition in southern Iberia

Quaternary Research (77): 221–234 (2012)


http://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/93059

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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
quote:
originally posted by Ish Gebor:
H has been suggested to be from local evolution, like M-E81. But still, most carry the L markers.

"Most carry L lineages"? "H local evolution". Hmm interesting.
Basically they are saying that ancient pastoralists are recent slaves.

quote:
The presence of sub-Saharan L-type mtDNA sequences in North Africa has traditionally been explained by the recent slave trade. However, gene flow between sub-Saharan and northern African populations would also have been made possible earlier through the greening of the Sahara resulting from Early Holocene climatic improvement. In this article, we examine human dispersals across the Sahara through the analysis of the sub-Saharan mtDNA haplogroup L3e5, which is not only commonly found in the Lake Chad Basin (∼17%), but which also attains nonnegligible frequencies (∼10%) in some Northwestern African populations. Age estimates point to its origin ∼10 ka, probably directly in the Lake Chad Basin, where the clade occurs across linguistic boundaries. The virtual absence of this specific haplogroup in Daza from Northern Chad and all West African populations suggests that its migration took place elsewhere, perhaps through Northern Niger. Interestingly, independent confirmation of Early Holocene contacts between North Africa and the Lake Chad Basin have been provided by craniofacial data from Central Niger, supporting our suggestion that the Early Holocene offered a suitable climatic window for genetic exchanges between North and sub-Saharan Africa. In view of its younger founder age in North Africa, the discontinuous distribution of L3e5 was probably caused by the Middle Holocene re-expansion of the Sahara desert, disrupting the clade's original continuous spread.


--Eliška Podgorná et al.

Annals of Human Genetics
Volume 77, Issue 6, pages 513–523, November 2013


The Genetic Impact of the Lake Chad Basin Population in North Africa as Documented by Mitochondrial Diversity and Internal Variation of the L3e5 Haplogroup

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ahg.12040/abstr


quote:

A total of 48% of the mtDNA haplotypes observed in the Tuareg populations could be ascribed to sub-Saharan haplogroups. Another 39%, however, were of West Eurasian ancestry (non-L types in Table 1), which is a substantial proportion considering the sub-Saharan geographical location. In fact, it has been observed that in typical North African populations there is a gradient of increasing frequency of West Eurasian lineages ranging from around 50–75% in the northernmost locations.34 The Tuareg's neighbours, however, have a markedly smaller proportion of West Eurasian haplotypes (22% in Western Chad Arabs, 8% in Shuwa Arabs from North-eastern Nigeria, 7% in the Buduma from South-eastern Niger and 6% in the Kanuri from North-eastern Nigeria).35 The remaining 13% of Tuareg haplotypes belong to the typical East African haplogroup M1.


The sub-Saharan mtDNA pool of the Tuareg is composed of various lineages from the major L-type haplogroups including: 2.3% of L0; 14.0% of L1; 58.1% of L2; 23.3% L3; and 2.3% of L4. We assayed to search for haplotype matches in an extensive database of 7211 individuals from all over Africa (Table 2). The most ancient lineages L0a1a and L1c, characteristic of east/southeast Africa13 and the Pygmies,39 respectively, were each observed in only one individual. The highly frequent African haplogroup L2, and specifically its dominant clade L2a, is also dominant in Tuareg – it is probable that some branches of L2a were involved in the Bantu expansion towards the African south13, 40 and many matches are observed for these haplotypes all over the continent. Curiously, the two L2a lineages having substitutions at positions 16 192 and 16 193, respectively, have no match in Africa. As far as the L3 macrohaplogroup is concerned, the two L3b haplotypes observed in the Tuareg are widespread throughout the continent, but one of the L3f1 haplotypes (T47 in Table 1) has no matches. Both are included in the L3f1 sub-haplogroup, which is quite frequent and widespread, and which very probably originated in East Africa. No L3f3, a typical marker of the Chadic migration,41 has been observed in the Tuareg.


--Luísa Pereira,1,2 Viktor Černý, et al.

Linking the sub-Saharan and West Eurasian gene pools: maternal and paternal heritage of the Tuareg nomads from the African Sahel

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2987384/table/tbl1/

quote:

The reconstruction of human cultural patterns in relation to environmental variations is an essential topic in modern archaeology.

In western Africa, a first Holocene humid phase beginning c. 11,000 years BP is known from the analysis of lacustrine sediments (Riser, 1983 ; Gasse, 2002). The monsoon activity increased and reloaded hydrological networks (like the Saharan depressions) leading to the formation of large palaeolakes. The colonisation of the Sahara by vegetation, animals and humans was then possible essentially around the topographic features like Ahaggar (fig. 1). But since 8,000 years BP, the climate began to oscillate towards a new arid episode, and disturbed the ecosystems (Jolly et al., 1998; Jousse, 2003).

First, the early Neolithics exploited the wild faunas, by hunting and fishing, and occupied small sites without any trace of settlement in relatively high latitudes. Then, due to the climatic deterioration, they had to move southwards.

This context leads us to consider the notion of refugia. Figure 1 presents the main zones colonised by humans in western Africa. When the fossil valleys of Azaouad, Tilemsi and Azaouagh became dry, after ca. 5,000 yr BP, humans had to find refuges in the Sahelian belt, and gathered around topographic features (like the Adrar des Iforas, and the Mauritanians Dhar) and major rivers, especially the Niger Interior Delta, called the Mema.


Whereas the Middle Neolithic is relatively well-known, the situation obviously becomes more complex and less information is available concerning local developments in late Neolithic times.. Only some cultural affiliations existed between the populations of Araouane and Kobadi in the Mema. Elsewhere, and especially along the Atlantic coast and in the Dhar Tichitt and Nema, the question of the origin of Neolithic peopling remains unsolved.

A study of the palaeoenvironment of those refugia was performed by analysing antelopes ecological requirements (Jousse, submitted). It shows that even if the general climate was drying from 5,000 – 4,000 yr BP in the Sahara and Sahel, edaphic particularities of these refugia allowed the persistence of local gallery forest or tree savannas, where humans and animals could have lived (fig. 2). At the same time, cultural innovation like agriculture, cattle breeding, social organisation in villages are recognised. For the moment, the relation between the northern and the southern populations are not well known.

How did humans react against aridity? Their dietary behaviour are followed along the Holocene, in relation with the environment, demographic expansion, settling process and emergence of productive activities.

- The first point concerns the pastoralism. The progression of cattle pastoralism from eastern Africa (fig. 3) is recorded from 7,400 yr BP in the Ahaggar and only from 4,400 yr BP in western Africa. This trend of breeding activities and human migrations can be related to climatic evolution. Since forests are infested by Tse-Tse flies preventing cattle breeding, the reduction of forest in the low-Sahelian belt freed new areas to be colonised. Because of the weakness of the archaeozoological material available, it is difficult to know what was the first pattern of cattle exploitation.

- A second analysis was carried on the resources balance, between fishing-hunting-breeding activities. The diagrams on figures 4 and 5 present the number of species of wild mammals, fishes and domestic stock, from a literature compilation. Fishing is known around Saharan lakes and in the Niger. Of course, it persisted with the presence of water points and even in historical times, fishing became a specialised activity among population living in the Niger Interior Delta. Despite the general environmental deterioration, hunting does not decrease thanks to the upholding of the vegetation in these refugia (fig. 2). On the contrary, it is locally more diversified, because at this local scale, the game diversity is closely related to the vegetation cover. Hence, the arrival of pastoral activities was not prevalent over other activities in late Neolithic, when diversifying resources appeared as an answer to the crisis.

This situation got worse in the beginning of historic times, from 2,000 yr BP, when intense settling process and an abrupt aridity event (Lézine & Casanova, 1989) led to a more important perturbation of wild animals communities. They progressively disappeared from the human diet, and the cattle, camel and caprin breeding prevailed as today.

Gasse, F., 2002. Diatom-inferred salinity and carbonate oxygen isotopes in Holocene waterbodies of the western Sahara and Sahel (Africa). Quaternary Science Reviews: 717-767.

Jolly, D., Harrison S. P., Damnati B. and Bonnefille R. , 1998. Simulated climate and biomes of Africa during the late Quaternary : Comparison with pollen and lake status data. Quaternary Science Review 17: 629-657.

Jousse H., 2003. Impact des variations environnementales sur la structure des communautés mammaliennes et l'anthropisation des milieux: exemple des faunes holocènes du Sahara occidental. Thèse de l’Université Lyon 1, 405 p.

Jousse H, 2003. Using archaeological fauna to calibrate palaeovegetation: the Holocene Bovids of western Africa. Submit to Quaternary Science Reviews in november 2003, référence: QSR 03-333.

Lézine, A. M. and J. Casanova, 1989. Pollen and hydrological evidence for the interpretation of past climate in tropical West Africa during the Holocene. Quaternary Science Review 8: 45-55.

Riser, J., 1983. Les phases lacustres holocènes. Sahara ou Sahel ? Quaternaire récent du bassin de Taoudenni (Mali). Marseille: 65-86.

Date received: January 27, 2004


http://at.yorku.ca/c/a/m/u/27.htm

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quote:
Originally posted by Nodnarb:
quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
@Nodnarb

Most of these L lineages do not look like they come from the east. They support West/Central African migration. Look at the nearest haplotypes and distribution patterns. These lineages have already been analyzed by many papers discussed over years. In some cases entire papers have been devoted to origin of a single North African L lineage and the verdict was south to north migration.

http://www.paris-iea.fr/en/publications/the-genetic-impact-of-the-lake-chad-basin-population-in-north-africa-as-documented-by-mitochondrial-diversity-and-internal-variation-of-the- l3e5-haplogroup-2

Of course, not all L lineages they have fit this pattern. But most do.

So given that, do you think my suggestion that Afrasan languages were spread to the Maghreb via West African-affiliated proxies is possible?
quote:

Our results also point to a less ancient western sub-Saharan gene flow to Tunisia, including haplogroups L2a and L3b. This conclusion points to an ancient African gene flow to Tunisia before 20,000 BP. These findings parallel the more recent findings of both archaeology and linguistics on the prehistory of Africa.

--Frigi et al


quote:
 -


 -


 -

--Elena A.A. Garcea

Successes and failures of human dispersals from North Africa
(2011)

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618211003612

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the lioness,
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 -
Amazigh berber mtDNA " Joining the Pillars of Hercules"

save this graphic for your records

Moroccan Berber mtDNA = column MB

Note L lineages very low,

Higher frequencies +
H
U

also T,V,K
_________________

Interestingly as per Morocco there are much higher
frequencies of L in Moroccan Arabs "MA"
than there are in Moroccan berbers "MB"according to this data

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the lioness,
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Here is the mtDNA of Libyan Tuareg


 -

First Genetic Insight into Libyan Tuaregs: A Maternal Perspective

Claudio Ottoni

_____________________

Heavily H1 with some much lower L frequencies

However the Tuareg population in Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso and Algeria, in this order
are all larger than in Libya and some of these places Tuaregs may have higher L frequencies
but I don't know of any articles pertaining to their mtDNA.
The Tuaregs are a much smaller population in Southern Morocco, numbering several thousand.

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Tauri (Crimea oldest historical group) T + auri
Taurus (mtn. range) T + aurus
Oroan (India, Bhutan) Boar totem non-Hindu
Zoroaster (Persian) Z + oroa
Tuareg (Libya Amazigt) = Oran(ge)/Tangier(ine)
Oro (Spanish:golden)~aurat(Arab: glow/clothe/fur)
Abraham/Avrahm/Ibrahim/Oraham (Chaldean)

http://bellbeakerblogger.blogspot.com/2016/11/differences-in-early-neolithic-dairy.html?showComment=1480768214173#c1078802770702995754
butter/mentega/Manteca/ghee(India)/golden

http://phys.org/news/2016-12-polluted-river-bronze-age.html 7ka copper smelting in Jordan

note: butter = mother's udder/bottle/bos/umbo

--------------------
xyambuatlaya

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quote:
Originally posted by Ish Gebor:
quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
quote:
originally posted by Ish Gebor:
H has been suggested to be from local evolution, like M-E81. But still, most carry the L markers.

"Most carry L lineages"? "H local evolution". Hmm interesting.
Basically they are saying that ancient pastoralists are recent slaves.

quote:
The presence of sub-Saharan L-type mtDNA sequences in North Africa has traditionally been explained by the recent slave trade. However, gene flow between sub-Saharan and northern African populations would also have been made possible earlier through the greening of the Sahara resulting from Early Holocene climatic improvement. In this article, we examine human dispersals across the Sahara through the analysis of the sub-Saharan mtDNA haplogroup L3e5, which is not only commonly found in the Lake Chad Basin (∼17%), but which also attains nonnegligible frequencies (∼10%) in some Northwestern African populations. Age estimates point to its origin ∼10 ka, probably directly in the Lake Chad Basin, where the clade occurs across linguistic boundaries. The virtual absence of this specific haplogroup in Daza from Northern Chad and all West African populations suggests that its migration took place elsewhere, perhaps through Northern Niger. Interestingly, independent confirmation of Early Holocene contacts between North Africa and the Lake Chad Basin have been provided by craniofacial data from Central Niger, supporting our suggestion that the Early Holocene offered a suitable climatic window for genetic exchanges between North and sub-Saharan Africa. In view of its younger founder age in North Africa, the discontinuous distribution of L3e5 was probably caused by the Middle Holocene re-expansion of the Sahara desert, disrupting the clade's original continuous spread.


--Eliška Podgorná et al.

Annals of Human Genetics
Volume 77, Issue 6, pages 513–523, November 2013


The Genetic Impact of the Lake Chad Basin Population in North Africa as Documented by Mitochondrial Diversity and Internal Variation of the L3e5 Haplogroup

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ahg.12040/abstr


quote:

A total of 48% of the mtDNA haplotypes observed in the Tuareg populations could be ascribed to sub-Saharan haplogroups. Another 39%, however, were of West Eurasian ancestry (non-L types in Table 1), which is a substantial proportion considering the sub-Saharan geographical location. In fact, it has been observed that in typical North African populations there is a gradient of increasing frequency of West Eurasian lineages ranging from around 50–75% in the northernmost locations.34 The Tuareg's neighbours, however, have a markedly smaller proportion of West Eurasian haplotypes (22% in Western Chad Arabs, 8% in Shuwa Arabs from North-eastern Nigeria, 7% in the Buduma from South-eastern Niger and 6% in the Kanuri from North-eastern Nigeria).35 The remaining 13% of Tuareg haplotypes belong to the typical East African haplogroup M1.


The sub-Saharan mtDNA pool of the Tuareg is composed of various lineages from the major L-type haplogroups including: 2.3% of L0; 14.0% of L1; 58.1% of L2; 23.3% L3; and 2.3% of L4. We assayed to search for haplotype matches in an extensive database of 7211 individuals from all over Africa (Table 2). The most ancient lineages L0a1a and L1c, characteristic of east/southeast Africa13 and the Pygmies,39 respectively, were each observed in only one individual. The highly frequent African haplogroup L2, and specifically its dominant clade L2a, is also dominant in Tuareg – it is probable that some branches of L2a were involved in the Bantu expansion towards the African south13, 40 and many matches are observed for these haplotypes all over the continent. Curiously, the two L2a lineages having substitutions at positions 16 192 and 16 193, respectively, have no match in Africa. As far as the L3 macrohaplogroup is concerned, the two L3b haplotypes observed in the Tuareg are widespread throughout the continent, but one of the L3f1 haplotypes (T47 in Table 1) has no matches. Both are included in the L3f1 sub-haplogroup, which is quite frequent and widespread, and which very probably originated in East Africa. No L3f3, a typical marker of the Chadic migration,41 has been observed in the Tuareg.


--Luísa Pereira,1,2 Viktor Černý, et al.

Linking the sub-Saharan and West Eurasian gene pools: maternal and paternal heritage of the Tuareg nomads from the African Sahel

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2987384/table/tbl1/

quote:

The reconstruction of human cultural patterns in relation to environmental variations is an essential topic in modern archaeology.

In western Africa, a first Holocene humid phase beginning c. 11,000 years BP is known from the analysis of lacustrine sediments (Riser, 1983 ; Gasse, 2002). The monsoon activity increased and reloaded hydrological networks (like the Saharan depressions) leading to the formation of large palaeolakes. The colonisation of the Sahara by vegetation, animals and humans was then possible essentially around the topographic features like Ahaggar (fig. 1). But since 8,000 years BP, the climate began to oscillate towards a new arid episode, and disturbed the ecosystems (Jolly et al., 1998; Jousse, 2003).

First, the early Neolithics exploited the wild faunas, by hunting and fishing, and occupied small sites without any trace of settlement in relatively high latitudes. Then, due to the climatic deterioration, they had to move southwards.

This context leads us to consider the notion of refugia. Figure 1 presents the main zones colonised by humans in western Africa. When the fossil valleys of Azaouad, Tilemsi and Azaouagh became dry, after ca. 5,000 yr BP, humans had to find refuges in the Sahelian belt, and gathered around topographic features (like the Adrar des Iforas, and the Mauritanians Dhar) and major rivers, especially the Niger Interior Delta, called the Mema.


Whereas the Middle Neolithic is relatively well-known, the situation obviously becomes more complex and less information is available concerning local developments in late Neolithic times.. Only some cultural affiliations existed between the populations of Araouane and Kobadi in the Mema. Elsewhere, and especially along the Atlantic coast and in the Dhar Tichitt and Nema, the question of the origin of Neolithic peopling remains unsolved.

A study of the palaeoenvironment of those refugia was performed by analysing antelopes ecological requirements (Jousse, submitted). It shows that even if the general climate was drying from 5,000 – 4,000 yr BP in the Sahara and Sahel, edaphic particularities of these refugia allowed the persistence of local gallery forest or tree savannas, where humans and animals could have lived (fig. 2). At the same time, cultural innovation like agriculture, cattle breeding, social organisation in villages are recognised. For the moment, the relation between the northern and the southern populations are not well known.

How did humans react against aridity? Their dietary behaviour are followed along the Holocene, in relation with the environment, demographic expansion, settling process and emergence of productive activities.

- The first point concerns the pastoralism. The progression of cattle pastoralism from eastern Africa (fig. 3) is recorded from 7,400 yr BP in the Ahaggar and only from 4,400 yr BP in western Africa. This trend of breeding activities and human migrations can be related to climatic evolution. Since forests are infested by Tse-Tse flies preventing cattle breeding, the reduction of forest in the low-Sahelian belt freed new areas to be colonised. Because of the weakness of the archaeozoological material available, it is difficult to know what was the first pattern of cattle exploitation.

- A second analysis was carried on the resources balance, between fishing-hunting-breeding activities. The diagrams on figures 4 and 5 present the number of species of wild mammals, fishes and domestic stock, from a literature compilation. Fishing is known around Saharan lakes and in the Niger. Of course, it persisted with the presence of water points and even in historical times, fishing became a specialised activity among population living in the Niger Interior Delta. Despite the general environmental deterioration, hunting does not decrease thanks to the upholding of the vegetation in these refugia (fig. 2). On the contrary, it is locally more diversified, because at this local scale, the game diversity is closely related to the vegetation cover. Hence, the arrival of pastoral activities was not prevalent over other activities in late Neolithic, when diversifying resources appeared as an answer to the crisis.

This situation got worse in the beginning of historic times, from 2,000 yr BP, when intense settling process and an abrupt aridity event (Lézine & Casanova, 1989) led to a more important perturbation of wild animals communities. They progressively disappeared from the human diet, and the cattle, camel and caprin breeding prevailed as today.

Gasse, F., 2002. Diatom-inferred salinity and carbonate oxygen isotopes in Holocene waterbodies of the western Sahara and Sahel (Africa). Quaternary Science Reviews: 717-767.

Jolly, D., Harrison S. P., Damnati B. and Bonnefille R. , 1998. Simulated climate and biomes of Africa during the late Quaternary : Comparison with pollen and lake status data. Quaternary Science Review 17: 629-657.

Jousse H., 2003. Impact des variations environnementales sur la structure des communautés mammaliennes et l'anthropisation des milieux: exemple des faunes holocènes du Sahara occidental. Thèse de l’Université Lyon 1, 405 p.

Jousse H, 2003. Using archaeological fauna to calibrate palaeovegetation: the Holocene Bovids of western Africa. Submit to Quaternary Science Reviews in november 2003, référence: QSR 03-333.

Lézine, A. M. and J. Casanova, 1989. Pollen and hydrological evidence for the interpretation of past climate in tropical West Africa during the Holocene. Quaternary Science Review 8: 45-55.

Riser, J., 1983. Les phases lacustres holocènes. Sahara ou Sahel ? Quaternaire récent du bassin de Taoudenni (Mali). Marseille: 65-86.

Date received: January 27, 2004


http://at.yorku.ca/c/a/m/u/27.htm

Key point here is that the "east african" haplogroup M1 is also "sub saharan" African. Nice wordplay there though on the part of the researchers. Meaning that the Tuaregs have a majority of Sub Saharan African lineages with some 'Eurasian' mixture and it is most likely that that M1 lineage would have to be further analyzed to see if it represents the earliest movements of Berber speakers from East Africa. Not to mention the earliest references to Berbers were in the areas of East Africa in documents like the Periplus of the Erythrean(Eritrean) sea.
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the lioness,
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quote:
Originally posted by Doug M:
Key point here is that the "east african" haplogroup M1 is also "sub saharan" African. Nice wordplay there though on the part of the researchers. Meaning that the Tuaregs have a majority of Sub Saharan African lineages with some 'Eurasian' mixture and it is most likely that that M1 lineage would have to be further analyzed to see if it represents the earliest movements of Berber speakers from East Africa. Not to mention the earliest references to Berbers were in the areas of East Africa in documents like the Periplus of the Erythrean(Eritrean) sea. [/QB]

Linking the sub-Saharan and West Eurasian gene pools: maternal and paternal heritage of the Tuareg nomads from the African Sahel

Luísa Pereira, 2010

In this study, we provide new mtDNA and Y chromosome data sets of three unrelated Tuareg groups from three different countries (Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso).

The weak Eastern African influence in Tuareg is further supported by the M1 haplotypes belonging to the lineages characteristic of the later Mediterranean expansion (M1b and M1a2a) and the presence of very few matches for sub-Saharan L haplotypes with East Africa. The main post-LGM Eurasian and M1a2a lineages found in the Tuareg favour North African origin with migration to its southern location in the Sahel between ∼9000 and ∼3000 years ago. The upper time limit is defined by the age of the M1a2a, (estimated here from the coding region diversity observed in the three Tuareg, two North and two south Mediterranean individuals at 8000±2400), and by the upper 95% confidence interval for the Tuareg V lineages having polymorphism 16 234 (8800 years ago); the lower limit is defined by the age of the Tuareg V lineages having polymorphism 16 234 (3600 years ago).

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the lioness,
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The Tuareg in Morocco, number several thousand.


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 -

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the lioness,
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Amazigh groups in Morocco:

Drawa

Filala

Tekna

Mesgita

Zeri

Ghomara

Kabyle

_________________

related:

Tuareg (several thousand in Morocco)

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Ish Geber
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quote:
Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:
Originally posted by Doug M:
Key point here is that the "east african" haplogroup M1 is also "sub saharan" African. Nice wordplay there though on the part of the researchers. Meaning that the Tuaregs have a majority of Sub Saharan African lineages with some 'Eurasian' mixture and it is most likely that that M1 lineage would have to be further analyzed to see if it represents the earliest movements of Berber speakers from East Africa. Not to mention the earliest references to Berbers were in the areas of East Africa in documents like the Periplus of the Erythrean(Eritrean) sea.

Linking the sub-Saharan and West Eurasian gene pools: maternal and paternal heritage of the Tuareg nomads from the African Sahel

Luísa Pereira, 2010

In this study, we provide new mtDNA and Y chromosome data sets of three unrelated Tuareg groups from three different countries (Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso).

The weak Eastern African influence in Tuareg is further supported by the M1 haplotypes belonging to the lineages characteristic of the later Mediterranean expansion (M1b and M1a2a) and the presence of very few matches for sub-Saharan L haplotypes with East Africa. The main post-LGM Eurasian and M1a2a lineages found in the Tuareg favour North African origin with migration to its southern location in the Sahel between ∼9000 and ∼3000 years ago. The upper time limit is defined by the age of the M1a2a, (estimated here from the coding region diversity observed in the three Tuareg, two North and two south Mediterranean individuals at 8000±2400), and by the upper 95% confidence interval for the Tuareg V lineages having polymorphism 16 234 (8800 years ago); the lower limit is defined by the age of the Tuareg V lineages having polymorphism 16 234 (3600 years ago). [/QB]

Do you not see the ridiculousness in your posts? smh


quote:

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More promising in ascertaining Eastern African origin is another haplotype observed in seven Tuareg individuals from Burkina Faso belonging to haplogroup M1a, which, though being considered dominant in East Africa42 also spread to the Mediterranean, and which has a total age of 28 800±4900 years.

--Viktor Cˇerny ́





quote:


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... with an African origin (haplogroups M and N) were the progenitors ...

--Sarah A. Tishkoff*

Whole-mtDNA Genome Sequence Analysis of Ancient African Lineages


http://exploring-africa.blogspot.com/2010_04_16_archive.html


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Explain how come almost the entire south looks like the people above? The lengths you go to make a fool out of yourself is simply amusing.

Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010  |  IP: Logged | Report this post to a Moderator
Ish Geber
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quote:


Phylogeography

The mtDNA haplogroup make-up of Italy as observed in our samples fits well with expectations in a typical European population. Thus, most of the Italian mtDNAs (,89%) could be attributed to European haplogroups H (,40%), I (,3%), J (,9%), T (,11%), U (,20%; U minus U6), V (,3%), X (,2%) and W (,1%); Figure 1. There are however important differences in haplogroup frequencies when examining them by main geographical regions. Thus, for instance, haplogroup H is 59% in the North, 46% in the Center, and decays to ,33% in the South; moreover, these regional differences are statistically significant: North vs South (Pearson’s chi-square, unadjusted-P val- ue,0.00003), and Center vs South (Pearson’s chi-square, unadjusted-P value,0.03724).


Mitochondrial DNA haplotypes of African origin are mainly represented by haplogroups M1 (0.3%), U6 (0.8%) and L (1.2%); from here onwards, L will be used to refer to all mtDNA lineages, excluding the non-African branches N and M [60,61].


A total of 282 Y-chromosomes were analyzed for a set of Y- SNPs and were classified into 22 different haplogroups (Figure 3). Two haplogroups were not found, even though markers defining these clades were tested: N3 and R1a1. Five haplogroups represented 76.71% of the total chromosomes: R1b3, J2, I(xI1b2), E3b1 and G. The frequencies averaged across populations were 26%, 21.2%, 10.2%, 9.9% and 9.2%, respectively. The remaining haplogroups sum to 23.2% in the total sample, and never above 4% in single population samples.

R1b3 frequency was found to be higher in the northern part of the country, while the Y-chromosome haplogroups G and E3b1, J2 and I(xI1b2)frequencies were higher in the south and in the central part of the country, respectively (Figure 1).
Regional differences are substantially higher in the Y-chromo- some than in the mtDNA.

--Francesca Brisighelli1,2,3., Vanesa A ́ lvarez-Iglesias1, Manuel Fondevila1, Alejandro Blanco-Verea1,
A ́ ngel Carracedo1,4, Vincenzo L. Pascali2, Cristian Capelli3, Antonio Salas1*.

Uniparental Markers of Contemporary Italian Population Reveals Details on Its Pre-Roman Heritage

http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0050794&type=printable

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Ish Geber
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quote:
Originally posted by the lioness,:
Amazigh groups in Morocco:

Drawa

Filala

Tekna

Mesgita

Zeri

Ghomara

Kabyle

_________________

related:

Tuareg (several thousand in Morocco)

https://youtu.be/wWOCywRDBvc
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010  |  IP: Logged | Report this post to a Moderator
the lioness,
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quote:
Originally posted by Ish Gebor:


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Explain how come almost the entire south looks like the people above? The lengths you go to make a fool out of yourself is simply amusing. [/QB]

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A lot of them are mulattos, that is the explanation stupid

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beyoku
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quote:
Originally posted by Swenet:
M81 also has no evidence of representating that westward migration ~7kya. It's cline is opposite of what we'd expect in that scenario. In fact, its cline is most similar to U6's cline and therefore much more consistent with Iberomaurusians than Berber speakers.

I personally think E-M78 (V65) tracks their movements in North Africa. I'm not completely ruling out that Berber speakers were also M81, but I think a much stronger case can be made for a much older presence in the Maghreb for that hg.

I am waiting on ancient dna to put the origin of M81 further back in the North West.....but it dont know.
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Swenet
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^'Maghrebi' being somewhat parallel to 'Ethio-Somali' to me screams E-M35. To me, the only question is, is the African part of this component correlated to E-V257 and M81 (as opposed to some other M35 hg)? An archaeological and autosomal context for such a E-M35 meta population from the Maghreb to the eastern Sahara is definitely there. It just needs to be confirmed with uniparentals.
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Ish Geber
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quote:
Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:
Originally posted by Ish Gebor:


 -


 -


Explain how come almost the entire south looks like the people above? The lengths you go to make a fool out of yourself is simply amusing.

 -

A lot of them are mulattos, that is the explanation stupid

LOL SMH You have severe mental health issues.

What happened to polytopicity?


Kiffian

Forensic reconstruction
Resin, University of Chicago and Project Exploration


 -


http://www.staabstudios.com/galleries/arch-7.html


Tenerean

Forensic reconstruction
Resin, University of Chicago and Project Exploration

 -

http://www.staabstudios.com/galleries/archaeology.html


Gobero People

Forensic reconstruction
Resin, University of Chicago and Project Exploration


quote:



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Más de cien años ha permanecido la momia guanche mejor conservada que existe en el Museo de Antropología y de allí salió ayer para llegar a su nueva casa, el Museo Arqueológico Nacional (MAN), donde será la estrella del nuevo espacio dedicado a la prehistoria canaria.

Con un poema guanche despidieron en el Museo Nacional de Antropología de Madrid a la momia del Barranco de Herques, hallada en 1776 en Tenerife, tras lo que se inició su traslado al Arqueológico con un estricto protocolo de seguridad para evitar su deterioro.

A su llegada al MAN, seis operarios de una empresa especializada en transporte de obras de arte, embutidos en monos de protección y mascarillas, realizaron el traspaso de la frágil momia de la caja en la que fue trasladada a una vitrina especialmente diseñada para mantener las condiciones de conservación idóneas.

Hace unos meses ya se había hecho un simulacro del traslado y colocación de la momia, según explicó a Efe la conservadora jefe del Museo, Teresa Gómez Espinosa, que relató cómo el proceso ha sido muy complejo porque la momia es muy delicada.

La vitrina que la albergará a partir de ahora ha sido especialmente diseñada para mantener las condiciones de conservación idóneas e incorpora complejos dispositivos para análisis y mediciones en su interior con el fin de evitar el riesgo de contaminación por compuestos orgánicos volátiles o por biodeterioro.


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Los momentos en los que la sacaron de la vitrina y el de instalación en la nueva fueron los más críticos, indicó la conservadora jefe, que consideró un éxito la operación, en la que se siguió un preciso protocolo debido a la fragilidad de la momia, muy sensible a las alteraciones.

Un embalaje muy sofisticado, realizado con un molde específicamente para el traslado, protegió a la momia durante el proceso para evitar peligrosos cambios ambientales y de luz.

«Es un ejemplar único», indicó a Efe el director del MAN, Andrés Carretero, que explicó que la operación llevada a cabo ayer es «como trasladar Las Meninas o El Guernica, no puede haber un solo fallo porque puede suponer un daño irreparable para la pieza".

Por ello, señaló, se hizo con todas las garantías y el personal técnico necesario tras los análisis realizados por el personal del Instituto de Patrimonio Cultural y un ensayo de todo el proceso.

Carretero está convencido de que la momia será un atractivo para todo el público y especialmente para los niños pero destacó el interés del museo en completar así la muestra del desarrollo cultural de la actual España ya que Canarias era la única Comunidad Autónoma que no estaba representada.


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Ruth Maicas, del departamento de Prehistoria del MAN, indicó que es muy difícil conocer la fecha de la que data la momia y consideró que queda mucho por investigar en la antropología e historia canaria.


Testimonio de cultura prehispánica

Esta momia, de un hombre adulto y que tras su hallazgo fue enviada al rey Carlos III para el Real Gabinete de Historia Natural por su excepcional estado de conservación, es testimonio de uno de los rasgos más llamativos de la cultura prehispánica en las islas de Tenerife, Gran Canaria y La Palma, que momificaban a miembros destacados de la sociedad y los enterraban en tumbas colectivas en cuevas de difícil acceso, recordó Maicas.

El cuerpo se cubría con pieles de cabra u oveja, y en Gran Canaria se empleaban también tejidos de junco de palma.

El sistema de momificación que se practicaba en las islas Canarias era diferente al de otras culturas y deja visibles más restos del fallecido.

El nuevo espacio dedicado a la arqueología canaria se completa con piezas cerámicas, textiles, ídolos, lascas y otros materiales, además de gráficas, mapas y un audiovisual, que acercan al visitante a la sociedad prehispánica insular.

http://www.abc.es/cultura/abci-momia-guanche-muda-arqueologico-201512151200_noticia.html


The lengths you go to make a fool out of yourself is simply amusing.

Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010  |  IP: Logged | Report this post to a Moderator
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