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Abstract

Humans have had a major impact on the environment. This has been particularly intense in the last millennium but has been noticeable since the development of food production and the associated higher population densities in the last 10,000 years. The use of fire and over-exploitation of large mammals has also been recognized as having an effect on the world’s ecology, going back perhaps 100,000 years or more. Here we report on an earlier anthropogenic environmental change. The use of stone tools, which dates back over 2.5 million years, and the subsequent evolution of a technologically-dependent lineage required the exploitation of very large quantities of rock. However, measures of the impact of hominin stone exploitation are rare and inherently difficult. The Messak Settafet, a sandstone massif in the Central Sahara (Libya), is littered with Pleistocene stone tools on an unprecedented scale and is, in effect, a man-made landscape. Surveys showed that parts of the Messak Settafet have as much as 75 lithics per square metre and that this fractured debris is a dominant element of the environment. The type of stone tools—Acheulean and Middle Stone Age—indicates that extensive stone tool manufacture occurred over the last half million years or more. The lithic-strewn pavement created by this ancient stone tool manufacture possibly represents the earliest human environmental impact at a landscape scale and is an example of anthropogenic change. The nature of the lithics and inferred age may suggest that hominins other than modern humans were capable of unintentionally modifying their environment. The scale of debris also indicates the significance of stone as a critical resource for hominins and so provides insights into a novel evolutionary ecology.

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By 1.76 Ma, hominins were making not just Mode 1 (Oldowan), but also Mode 2 (Acheulean technologies) [16] stone tools, which become a prominent part of the African and western Eurasian landscape after about 0.8 Ma [17]. Further major changes in technology, in the form of Mode 3 industries (Middle Stone Age, prepared core, Levallois), took place possibly as early as 500 thousand years ago (Ka) [18,19] and certainly by 280 Ka [20], and are widespread in Africa and beyond [21]. The technologies of the Upper Pleistocene become increasingly variable and widespread. There are thus nearly two million years of significant and increasing lithic exploitation and discard across many parts of Africa.

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