posted
Ancient Nubia : Where Superimposition of the Caucasoids on the Negroids Took Place.
quote:
The Hpal (np3,592) mitochondrial DNA marker is a selectively neutral mutation that is very common in sub-Saharan Africa and is almost absent in North African and European populations.
It has been screened in a Meroitic sample from ancient Nubia through PCR amplification and posterior enzyme digestion, to evaluate the sub-Saharan genetic influences in this population. From 29 individuals analysed, only 15 yield positive amplifications, four of them (26.7%) displaying the sub-Saharan African marker. Hpa 1 (np3,592) marker is present in the sub-Saharan populations at a frequency of 68.7 on average. Thus, the frequency of genes from this area in the Merotic Nubian population can be estimated at around 39% (with a confidence interval from 22% to 55%). The frequency obtained fits in a south-north decreasing gradient of Hpa I (np3,592) along the African continent. Results suggest that morphological changes observed historically in the Nubian populations are more likely to be due to the existence of south-north gene flow through the Nile Valley than to in-situ evolution.
"Starting from the Late Neolithic...similarities between the Nubians and the populations of Northeast Africa...and Asia...became even more distinct, which may prove the existence of strong ties derived probably from influx of the Caucasoids from the regions of Levant, Mesopotamia, and India. They were coming to Nubia through the Sinai Peninsula, but probably also through the south Saudi Arabia. The Kerma series from Upper Nubia shows particular similarities to the present-day Indian series.
"From the Neolithic on, or possibly even earlier, the strategic location of Nubia, promoting contacts between various populations, started to bring about effects in the form of the civilizational development of this region. Finally, these two factors led to the Hamitisation process, whereby superimposition of the Caucasoids on the Negroids took place."
posted
lol at the above. LOL 1997 and 1999 SMH Besides that it is about "a Merotic" Nubian population. (From 29 individuals analysed) lol
quote:Originally posted by Ish Gebor:
quote:Originally posted by viceroy:
quote: The Hpal (np3,592) mitochondrial DNA marker is a selectively neutral mutation that is very common in sub-Saharan Africa and is almost absent in North African and European populations.
It has been screened in a Meroitic sample from ancient Nubia through PCR amplification and posterior enzyme digestion, to evaluate the sub-Saharan genetic influences in this population. From 29 individuals analysed, only 15 yield positive amplifications, four of them (26.7%) displaying the sub-Saharan African marker. Hpa 1 (np3,592) marker is present in the sub-Saharan populations at a frequency of 68.7 on average. Thus, the frequency of genes from this area in the Merotic Nubian population can be estimated at around 39% (with a confidence interval from 22% to 55%). The frequency obtained fits in a south-north decreasing gradient of Hpa I (np3,592) along the African continent. Results suggest that morphological changes observed historically in the Nubian populations are more likely to be due to the existence of south-north gene flow through the Nile Valley than to in-situ evolution.
"Starting from the Late Neolithic...similarities between the Nubians and the populations of Northeast Africa...and Asia...became even more distinct, which may prove the existence of strong ties derived probably from influx of the Caucasoids from the regions of Levant, Mesopotamia, and India. They were coming to Nubia through the Sinai Peninsula, but probably also through the south Saudi Arabia. The Kerma series from Upper Nubia shows particular similarities to the present-day Indian series.
"From the Neolithic on, or possibly even earlier, the strategic location of Nubia, promoting contacts between various populations, started to bring about effects in the form of the civilizational development of this region. Finally, these two factors led to the Hamitisation process, whereby superimposition of the Caucasoids on the Negroids took place."
(Aleksandra Pudlo, Anthropological Review, 1999)
This may be too advanced for some picture spamming Afro Idiots, but if can read simple English, you'll surely get it.
quote:Originally posted by sudaniya:
quote:Originally posted by viceroy: Nubians are about 60% Caucasoid genetically!!
Deal with the truth or just go hide your head in the sand!!LOL
My people have nothing to do with 'Caucasians', you lying scoundrel.
LOL 1997 and 1999. Back then certain haplotypes were considered to come from Eurasia, no questions asked. Better yet, "Africa especially sub Sahara Africa weren't evaluated deeply, Sara Tishkoff was the first one to do so. So the stuff you posted has been debunked by a long stretch, as you can see by the many more recent studies I've posted. Which shows again that you have no functional brain. It's terminal death.
One of the major factors that has debunked this mixed theory is COLD vs TROPICAL ADAPTION!
quote:This evidence suggests that the process of state formation itself may have been mainly an indigenous process, but that it may have occurred in association with in-migration to the Abydos region of the Nile Valley. This potential in-migration may have occurred particularly during the EDyn and OK. A possible explanation is that the Egyptian state formed through increasing control of trade and raw materials, or due to military actions, potentially associated with the use of the Nile Valley as a corridor for prolonged small scale movements through the desert environment."
--Sonia R. Zakrzewski. (2007).
Population Continuity or Population Change: Formation of the Ancient Egyptian State. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 132:501-509)
quote: Genetic genealogy is more within reach of the average person than ever, thanks to advances in sequencing technology that have helped the cost of genome sequencing dramatically plummet from nearly $3 billion in 2000 to near $1,000 nowadays. That sort of price reduction is mind-boggling, Ball said. “It’s as if, 15 years from now, I could get my own Mars rover.”
Southeast and south Asian populations are also often thought to be derived from the admixture of various combinations of western Eurasians (‘Caucasoids’), east Asians and Australasians. ...
These findings, coupled with the recently discovered presence of haplogroup U in Ethiopia [11], support a scenario in which a northeast African population dispersed out of Africa into India, presumably through the Arabian peninsula, before 50,000 years ago (Figure 2). Other migrations into India also occurred, but rarely from western Eurasian populations. ... Thus, the ‘caucasoid’ features of south Asians may best be considered ‘pre-caucasoid’— that is, part of a diverse north or north-east African gene pool that yielded separate origins for western Eurasian and southern Asian populations over 50,000 years ago.
--Todd R. Disotell.
Human evolution: The southern route to Asia
Volume 9, Issue 24, 30 December 1999, Pages R925–R928
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
| IP: Logged |
quote:however, the time and the extent of genetic divergence between populations north and south of the Sahara remain poorly understood.
--Brenna Henn Published: January 12, 2012DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002397:
"Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations"
quote:
Fluctuation in population size might be a mark of the out of Africa group because migration and challenges of adapting to new environments subject the population to both influences of drift and inbreeding. Cases of low census size and a larger inbreeding effective size are known in mammalian populations and attributed to recent population reductions [44]. Although the difference between the current and expected census for Australians was not statistically significant it still indicates an interesting feature of this isolated group. It is not clear why Australia was colonized with a higher population size than the populations that colonized other regions. Henn et al., [45] contemplated this in the light of lineage specific acceleration. Our findings, however, indicate that the population of Australia may have maintained a legacy of high Ne originally carried by the ancestral group that left Africa and seen in the number of haplotypes that survived in their gene pool. This may suggest that both census and effective size of the group that made it to Australia was large enough to counteract the effect of drift and permit survival of relics of these original haplotypes.
It is not only genetic data that lends support to an east African origin of humans but the unparalleled ethnic and linguistic diversity that remains one of the highest worldwide. Interestingly the two most ancestral sequences in the NJ tree figure refer to Nubian individuals.
Nubia is currently identified with one of the most ancient human settlements, the Say culture. Recently, a related compound associated with a lithic middle Stone Agindustry was discovered in Dhofar Oman and taken as an evidence of human migration out of Africa through an Arabian route [46]. Overall, the various genetic markers used in the current analysis support the observation of human effective population size larger than previously estimated, and emphasize the importance of sampling populations of putative deep ancestry.
[...]
quote: According to the current data East Africa is home to nearly 2/3 of the world genetic diversity independent of sampling effect. Similar figure have been suggested for sub-Saharan Africa populations [1]. The antiquity of the east African gene pool could be viewed not only from the perspective of the amount of genetic diversity endowed within it but also by signals of uni-modal distribution in their mitochondrial DNA (Hassan et al., unpublished) usually taken as an indication of populations that have passed through ‘‘recent’’ demographic expansion [33], although in this case, may in fact be considered a sign of extended shared history of in situ evolution where alleles are exchanged between neighboring demes [34].
Figure S1 Neighbor joining (NJ). NJ tree of the world populations based on MT-CO2 sequences. The evolutionary relationship of 171 sequences and evolutionary history was inferred using the Neighbor-Joining method. The optimal tree with the sum of branch length = 0.20401570 is shown. The evolutionary distances were computed using the Maximum Composite Likelihood method and are in the units of the number of base substitutions per site. Codon positions included were 1st+2nd+3rd+Noncoding. All positions containing gaps and missing data were eliminated from the dataset. There were a total of 543 positions in the final dataset. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted in MEGA4. Red dots: east Africa, Blue: Africa, Green: Asia, Yellow: Australia, Pink: Europe and gray: America. (TIF)
Figure S2 Multidimensional Scaling Plot (MDS). The 2nd and 3rd coordinates of an MDS plot of 848 nuclear microsatellite loci from 469 individuals of 24 world populations. MDS uses pairwise IBS data based on the 848 loci generated by PLINK software and plotted using R version 2.15.0. The figure, besides a separate clustering of east Africans, indicates the substantial contribution of Africans and east Africans to the founding of populations of Europe and Asia. (TIF)
Figure S3 Multidimensional Scaling Plot (MDS). The 3rd and 4th coordinates of an MDS plot of 848 Microsatellite loci, across the human genome in 469 individuals from 24 populations from Africa, Asia and Europe. MDS uses pairwise IBS data based on the 848 loci generated by PLINK software and plotted using R version 2.15.0. The central position of east Africans and some other Africans emphasizes the founding role of east African gene pool and the disparate alignment on coordinates along which the world populations were founded including populations of Aftica aligning along the 4th dimension. (TIF)
Figure 4. Multidimensional Scaling Plot (MDS). A. First and second coordinates of an MDS plot of 848 Microsatellite Marshfield data set across the human genome for 24 populations from Africa, Asia and Europe. MDS plot was constructed from pairwise differences FST generated by Arlequin program (Table S3). B. First and second coordinates of an MDS plot of 848 Microsatellite loci, across the human genome in 469 individuals from 24 populations from Africa, Asia and Europe. MDS uses pairwise IBS data based on the 848 loci generated by PLINK software and plotted using R version 2.15.0. East Africans cluster to the left of the plot, while Beja (red cluster in the middle), assumes intermediate position. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0097674.g004
Figure S4 Multidimensional Scaling Plot (MDS). First and second coordinates of an MDS plot based on MT-CO2 data set constructed from pairwise differences FST generated by Arlequin v3.11. Population code as follows: Nara: Nar, Kunama (Kun), Hidarb (Hid), Afar (Afa), Saho (Sah), Bilen (Bil), Tigre (Tgr), Tigrigna (Tig), Rashaida (Rsh), Nilotics (Nil), Beja (Bej), Ethiopians(Eth), Egyptians (Egy), Moroccans (Mor), Southern Africans (Sth), Pygmy (Pyg), Saudi Arabia (Sdi), Asia (Asi), Europe (Eur), Native Americans (NA), Australians (Ast), Nubians (Nub), Nuba (Nba) (TIF)
--Jibril Hirbo, Sara Tishkoff et al.
The Episode of Genetic Drift Defining the Migration of Humans out of Africa Is Derived from a Large East African Population Size
PLoS One. 2014; 9(5): e97674. Published online 2014 May 20. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097674
posted
viceroy, Let's see who knows more about local populations. lol
SELECTED STUDIES
It all began in 1959 when, following the digging of Lake Nasser, and the creation of the Aswan High Dam. Accompanying this project was an exceptional venture which brought together Egypt's leading artists and intellectuals in what amounted to a large-scale expedition to track down and record different aspects of life in Nubia-- a land that was soon to be drowned under the massive Lake Nasser. UNESCO undertook in cooperation with the Egyptian Ministry of Culture a project to relocate Nubian populations and ancient Egyptian monuments under threat of inundation during the building of the High Dam in Aswan. The project was an odyssey that created a registry of 29,000 photographs and documents kept in the National Institute of Monuments. While the climax of the odyssey, however, came in 1963 when the work on relocating the Temple of Abu Simbel began, raising it to a site 180 metre above sea level, the human impact of this cataclysmic event remains understudied. For this reason, the Ambassadors Research Foundation is re-publishing an important study by Prof. Fawzia Hussein about inbreeding among the Egyptian Nubian population, which appeared 35 years ago in the Journal of Biosocial Science [1971, Vol.3, pages 251-257]. We would also like to invite international scholars specializing in Nubia t send their research to the Selected Studies Section of the Ambassadors Magazine for publication in subsequent issues.[b]
Endogamy in Egyptian Nubia
By Prof. Fawzia H. Hussien, PhD
Summary In a sample of 282 marriages in New Nubia in Egypt, 39% were between first cousins and 21% between less closely related kin. The average number of liveborn offspring in first-cousin marriage
was higher than in marriages between more distant relations and unrelated spouses, but the number of deaths among children of first-cousin couples was also higher.
Introduction
Until 1963, the heart of Egyptian Nubia was a narrow strip of cultivated land, more than 300 km long, but less than 1 km wide, lying along the Nile between the first and second cataract (Reisner, 1910; Greener, 1962). It comprised forty-four villages, each composed of groups of houses on one or both banks of the river. Such a group of houses was called a nagä, and contained about 100 residents or less. A village might contain few nagäs or many, sometimes more than thirty. The nagäs were scattered, often separated from each other by sand dunes and rocky hills (Shafäi, 1967). The population of this zone could be divided into three groups, according to their languages (Fernea, 1963; Mohamed, 1965). Two of them, the Konouz, living in the northern part, and the Fededja, living in the southern part near the Sudan frontier, speak different dialects of the Nubian language. Between them, in the centre of the area, lived the Arabic-speaking Nubians (Herzog, 1957). The tribe was the basis of the social organization in these three groups. Each tribe lived in one or more nagäs, and each nagä was largely composed of the members of one tribe or tribal section (Fernea & Kennedy, 1966).
The number of Egyptian Nubians was estimated by Chantre (1904) to be 180,000 in all. More recently, Fernea (1963) estimated that there was a total of 52,000 in Nubia and since resources were inadequate to support the population by existing methods of land use, a similar number of, predominantly male, adults away as migrant workers in urban centres elsewhere. Fernea & Kennedy (1966) estimated their number to be 50,000 in Nubia and 72,000 in urban centres. According to the census of 1960, Nubians numbered 98,000, about 48,000 in Nubia and the rest elsewhere.
The construction of the High Damn on the Nile at Aswan doomed the territory of these groups; their relocation in ‘New Nubia’ began in the autumn of 1963 and was completed by 1964.
Materials and Methods
The data presented here were collected during a general survey of Egyptian Nubians (Valsik, Strouhal, Hussien & Nofely, 1970) carried out by two Czechoslovak/Arab antrhopological expeditions to New Nubia in 1965 and 1967. The subjects were 281 women between 18 and 45 years of age, drawn from the three language groups - 83 Konouz, 73 Arab and 125 Fededja. Information was obtained from each one as to her relationship to her husband or husbands; whether she had been married more than once, or divorced; the relationship of her parents to each other; and the number of children born to her, and whether they were still living or already dead. Most of these women did not know their exact age nor did they know accurately the ages at which children had died or the causes or other details of their death. It was therefore not possible to analyse the material by the women's age groups and we had to be satisfied with the overall numbers of living and dead children. Collection of accurate information on reproductive histories in communities such as this presents many difficulties. However, by reason of her sex, the author was able to penetrate among the women and converse with them to an extent that would be impossible for a male investigator. In these circumstances, the information is felt to be reasonably reliable.
Results
Marriage between Nubians and non-Nubians is not customary (less than 2%) and only occurs in the Fededja. It may take place between members of different tribes of the same ethnic group (16.3%) and this is most frequent in the Fededja and least so in the Konouz (Table 1). Most marriages, however, occur between relatives, particularly between first cousins (39.3%), and also between those less closely related (21.3%). First-cousin marriage is most frequent in the Arabs and least so in the Fededja (Fig.1).
The generations can be compared from the data in Table 2, which shows the number of unions between relatives and non-relatives in the subjects’ generation, and in the subjects’ parents’ generation. This comparison was possible only on part of the data, and is limited to those subjects for whom information on their own parents (including multiple marriages) was reported. Overall there has been a general increase in the number of marriages outside the tribe. There is a slight increase in the proportion of first-cousin marriages in all three samples and a larger decline in the proportion of marriages between those less closely related. The proportion between non-relatives of the same tribe is similar in the two generations, so that, broadly, there has been a slight decline in the proportion of consanguineous unions despite the slight increase in those between first cousins.
In more societies the frequency of first-cousin marriage is of the order of 0.5-2% (Li, 1961), though the published figures relate mainly to western peoples. In Japan, where general consanguinity is usually more common than in the western world, first-cousin marriages are about 4% (Tanaka, 1963). In 503 Moslem marriages studied in the coastal zone of north-east Tanzania (Tanner & Roberts, unpublished data), 38% were between first cousins, so that the figure of 39% for the Nubian material is very similar. However, even in European communities, the percentage of cousin marriages may be quite high; for example in some of the remoter villages in the Canary Islands (Roberts et al, 1966) cousin marriages amounted to 25%. The high endogamy in Nubia may be attributed partly to the fact tht the Nubians live in small groups in rather widely separated areas, and the small size of the groups and their relative isolation as in more isolated communities (e.g. Tristan da Cunha: Roberts, 1967) tends to restrict the number of potential mates from whom any individual could choose. Such groups are mostly from one tribe (Fernea & Kennedy, 1966), so that the opportunities are greater for marriage within the tribes. But there is also an element of actual preference for marriages with relatives, especially of first-cousins, and this preference may be based on economic or social as well as religious considerations. For example, the bride is chosen by the mother of the groom, who expects that the girl will be respectful towards her and help her in the household, and this is more likely when the bride is a close relative. Also, it seems that a first-cousin marriage may be more durable and hence preferable, no matter whether these cousins are paternal or maternal, parallel or cross cousins. In the present sample, divorce occurred in 3.6% of the first-cousin marriages as compared with 14.6% in other types of marriages. Looking more closely at two of the Fededja villages, Ibirm & Balana (Figure 2), there are fewer first-cousin marriages in Ibirm, but a greater number of repeated marriages and of divorces than in Balana.
Thus, it seems that, in Nubia, endogamy is socially advantageous as compared with exogamy but endogamy is the social reflection of biological inbreeding, and it may, therefore, also be disadvantageous. It is known that the number of prenatal deaths, still births, and congenital malformations tends to be higher in consanguineous unions more especially in those between first-cousins than in those of unrelated couples (Stern, 1960; Stevenson et.al, 1966). Among the Nubians as a whole and among the Konouz and Fededja, the average number of live-born children per marriage is higher in unions between first cousins than in those between distant relatives and between unrelated spouses. The same trend is not shown in the Arab group (Table 3). Unfortunately, the information is insufficiently detailed to allow these figures to be examined further. It may well be, for example, that the greater number of children per union in the first-cousin marriages may be a result of the greater duration of first-cousin marriages and, there fore the longer opportunity for producing children.
However, the mortality of offspring of first-cousin parents (35.7%) (Table 3), is markedly and consistently higher than among the offspring of less closely related and unrelated parents (27.1%), a difference that is highly significant. Again, it may be that the longer duration of first-cousin marriages may have led to inclusion of a greater number of older offspring in the figures, though it seems unlikely that such a bias would be sufficient to account for the extent of the differences observed. Since all families lived under the same environmental conditions, the figures strongly suggest that consanguinity is the main determinant of the observed excess mortality in the offspring of related parents. This excess may be attributed to inbreeding, being brought about by higher frequency of congenital abnormalities and disease, appearing as a result of recessive genetic components made manifest through the increased homozygosity that the mating pattern will bring about. Also, greater mortality has been reported in the offspring of consanguineous as compared with other unions, even when the children had no visible major malformations (Stern, 1960; Stevenson et al. 1966). In Alexandria, there is high consanguinity (33% first-cousin marriages) and high mortality, but the mortality is the same in the offspring of related and unrelated parents (Stevenson et al.1966). In Nubia, however, where there is first-cousin consanguinity of 39.3% and also very high mortality, there is a considerable difference between the mortality of the offspring, of first cousins as compared with those from other unions. The increased mortality observed in the offspring of related parents, together with the very poor medical care which was available in old Nubia, may explain the comparative absence of congenital malformation noted in our own and other Nubian studies (Valsik, 1967; Temtamy, personal communication). With the improved medical care that is now available in the new territory, where health units and small hospitals have been provided for every group of villages, we may expect an increase in the number of cases of congenital abnormality of caring in the Nubia. To offset this, it is possible that the extravagant may diminish. Our figures show that there is somewhat low frequency of consanguineous unions in the present that in the previous generation. The lay out of districts in old Nubia has been transferred to new Nubia, but the settlements have been planned to be compact and contiguous, and the neighbours are not always related groups because the government distributed houses according to the size of the family recorded in the last census held in old Nubia (Fernea & Kennedy, 1966). Also the ease with which people can now travel from one village to the other is incomparably greater than formerly when they were separated by long distances of desert or by the river and always by bad transport. If the frequency of endogamy is reduced, this should be accompanied by a diminution in the incidence of congenital malformations. The interesting problem is whether the breakdown of inbreeding habits will breakdown of inbreeding habits will keep pace with the improvements in medical care, so that the appearance of congenital abnormalities in Nubia will remain as low as it is today.
References:
Chantre, E. (1904). Recherches Anthropologiques dans l'Afrique Oriental: Egypte. A. Rey, Lyon.
Fernea, R.A. (1963). "The Ethnological Survey of Egyptian Nubia." Curr. Anthrop., 4, 122.
Fernea, R.A. & Kennedy, J.G. (1966). "Initial Adaptation to the Real Settlement. A new life for the Egyptian Nubians. Curr. Anthrop., 7, 349.
Greener, L. (1962). High Dam Over Nubia.. Cassell, London
Herzog, R. (1975). Die Nubier. Akademie Verlag, Berlin.
Mohamed, A.M. (1965). The African Nations and Races. The Egyptian House of Composing & Translating, Koutatsomes, Cairo [In Arabic].
Reisner, G. A. (1910). The Archeological Survey of Nubia. A report from 1907-1908, vol.1, National Printing Department, Cairo.
Roberts, D.F. (1967). "The Development of Inbreeding in an Island Populations," Cienc. Cult., 19, 78.
Roberts, D.F. et al. (1966). "Blood groups and the Affinities of the Canary Islanders," Man, 1, 512.
Shafai, H. (1967). "Housing project for resettlement of Nubians in Com Ombo district in UAR," 2nd Conference of the Africo-Asian Housing Organization, Singapore [In Arabic].
Stern, C. (1960). Principles of Human Genetics. Freeman, San Francisco.
Stevenson, A.C. et al (1966). Congenital Malformation. Bull. WHO, 43, suppl.
Tanaka, K. (1963). Consanguinity Study on Japanese Populations. Proceedings of a Conference on Human Population Genetics held at Hebrew University, Jerusalem. Edited by E. Goldschmidt. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore.
Valsik, J.A. (1967). Discussion and criticism on the Egyptian Nubia. Curr. Anthrop., 8, 251.
Valsik, J.A., Strouhal, E., Hussien, F.H. et al. (1970). "Biology of Man in Egyptian Nubia." Mater Pr. Anthrop, 78, 93.
Dr. Fawzia Hussein is the professor of Physical Anthropology in the Biological anthropology department at the National Research Center. She is a Member of the high committee of the Egyptian antiquities Organization. She has published excellent papers studying the Ancient Egyptian remains and the Egyptian Nubians. The Ambassadors Magazine previously presented her in the Megastars section of Vol.6, Issue 1
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
| IP: Logged |
quote:"This finding is in agreement with morphological data that suggest that populations with sub-Saharan morphological elements were present in northeastern Africa, from the Paleolithic to at least the early Holocene, and diffused northward to the Levant and Anatolia beginning in the Mesolithic.
[...]
"From the Mesolithic to the early Neolithic period different lines of evidence support an out-of-Africa Mesolithic migration to the Levant by northeastern African groups that had biological affinities with sub-Saharan populations. From a genetic point of view, several recent genetic studies have shown that sub-Lines: 369 to 3770.0pt PgVar Normal PagePgEnds: TEX [554], Saharan genetic lineages (affiliated with the Y-chromosome PN2 clade; Underhill2 et al. 2001) have spread through Egypt into the Near East, the Mediterranean area, and, for some lineages, as far north as Turkey (E3b-M35 Y lineage; Cinniog¢lu et al. 2004; Luis et al. 2004), probably during several dispersal episodes since the Mesolithic (Cinniog¢lu et al. 2004; King et al. 2008; Lucotte and Mercier 2003;6 Luis et al. 2004; Quintana-Murci et al. 1999; Semino et al. 2004; Underhill et al.7 2001). This finding is in agreement with morphological data that suggest that populations with sub-Saharan morphological elements were present in northeastern Africa, from the Paleolithic to at least the early Holocene, and diffused northward10 to the Levant and Anatolia beginning in the Mesolithic.
"Indeed, the rare and incomplete Paleolithic to early Neolithic skeletal specimens found in Egypt—such as the 33,000-year-old Nazlet Khater specimen (Pinhasi and Semal 2000), the Wadi Kubbaniya skeleton from the late Paleolithic site in the upper Nile valley (Wendorf et al. 1986), the Qarunian (Faiyum) early Neolithic crania (Henneberg et al. 1989; Midant-Reynes 2000), and the Nabta specimen from the Neolithic Nabta Playa site in the western desert of Egypt (Henneberg et al. 1980)—show, with regard to the great African biological diversity, similarities with some of the sub-Saharan middle Paleolithic and modern sub-Saharan specimens. This affinity pattern between ancient Egyptians and sub-Saharans has also been noticed by several other investigators (Angel 1972; Berry and Berry 1967, 1972; Keita 1995) and has been recently reinforced by the study of Brace et al. (2005), which clearly shows that the cranial morphology of prehistoric and recent northeast African populations is linked to sub-Saharan populations (Niger-Congo populations). These results support the hypothesis that some of the Paleolithic–early Holocene populations from northeast Africa were probably descendents of sub-Saharan ancestral populations."
--F X Ricaut · M Waelkens
Article: Cranial Discrete Traits in a Byzantine Population and Eastern Mediterranean Population Movements
Human Biology 11/2008; 80(5):535-64. DOI:10.3378/1534-6617-80.5.535 · 1.52 Impact Factor
quote: The reasons for all of this violence most likely comes down to climate. The Ice Age glaciers covering much of Europe and North America at this time made the climate in Egypt and Sudan cold and arid.
Among the most exciting of the new acquisitions are the materials from the site of Jebel Sahaba, now in northern Sudan, which were donated to the Museum by Dr Fred Wendorf in 2002. Excavating here in 1965–66, as part of the UNESCO-funded campaign to salvage sites destined to be flooded by the construction of the Aswan High Dam, Dr Wendorf found a cemetery (site 117) containing at least 61 individuals dating back to about 13,000 years ago.
--Renée Friedman, curator, British Museum
Violence and climate change in prehistoric Egypt and Sudan
quote: Bivariate analyses distinguish Jebel Sahaba from European and circumpolar samples, but do not tend to segregate them from recent North or sub-Saharan African samples
--T. W. Holliday* 2013 Population Affinities of the Jebel Sahaba Skeletal Sample: Limb Proportion Evidence
quote:"The ancient Egyptians were not 'white' in any European sense, nor were they 'Caucasian'... we can say that the earliest population of ancient Egypt included African people from the upper Nile, African people from the regions of the Sahara and modern Libya, and smaller numbers of people who had come from south-western Asia and perhaps the Arabian penisula."
--Robert Morkot (2005). The Egyptians: An Introduction. pp. 12-13
quote: There is now a sufficient body of evidence from modern studies of skeletal remains to indicate that the ancient Egyptians, especially southern Egyptians, exhibited physical characteristics that are within the range of variation for ancient and modern indigenous peoples of the Sahara and tropical Africa.
In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more southerly areas [...]
Any interpretation of the biological affinities of the ancient Egyptians must be placed in the context of hypothesis informed by the archaeological, linguistic, geographic or other data.
In this context the physical anthropological evidence indicates that the early Nile Valley populations can be identified as part of an African lineage, but exhibiting local variation. This variation represents the short and long term effects of evolutionary forces, such as gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection influenced by culture and geography"
--Kathryn A. Bard (STEPHEN E. THOMPSON Egyptians, physical anthropology of Physical anthropology)
quote:“Pleistocene through to the Christian periods, reveals a break in population continuity between the Pleistocene (Jebel Sahaba) and the Final Neolithic (Gebel Ramlah, dating to the first half of the fifth millennium BC) samples. The dental traits from Jebel Sahaba align more closely with modern sub-Saharan populations, while Gebel Ramlah and later align closer to Egypt specifically and to the Sahara in general.”
--Michael Brass
Reconsidering the emergence of social complexity in early Saharan pastoral societies, 5000 – 2500 B.C. (2007)
quote:Previous analyses of cranial variation found the Badari and Early Predynastic Egyptians to be more similar to other African groups than to Mediterranean or European populations (Keita, 1990; Zakrzewski, 2002). In addition, the Badarians have been described as near the centroid of cranial and dental variation among Predynastic and Dynastic populations studied (Irish, 2006; Zakrzewski, 2007). This suggests that, at least through the Early Dynastic period, the inhabitants of the Nile valley were a continuous population of local origin, and no major migration or replacement events occurred during this time.
Studies of cranial morphology also support the use of a Nubian (Kerma) population for a comparison of the Dynastic period, as this group is likely to be more closely genetically related to the early Nile valley inhabitants than would be the Late Dynastic Egyptians, who likely experienced significant mixing with other Mediterranean populations (Zakrzewski, 2002). A craniometric study found the Naqada and Kerma populations to be morphologically similar (Keita, 1990). Given these and other prior studies suggesting continuity (Berry et al., 1967; Berry and Berry, 1972), and the lack of archaeological evidence of major migration or population replacement during the Neolithic transition in the Nile valley, we may cautiously interpret the dental health changes over time as primarily due to ecological, subsistence, and demographic changes experienced throughout the Nile valley region."
-- AP Starling, JT Stock. (2007). Dental Indicators of Health and Stress in Early Egyptian and Nubian Agriculturalists: A Difficult Transition and Gradual Recovery. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 134:520–528
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
| IP: Logged |
quote:Our results suggest that the Gurna population has conserved the trace of an ancestral genetic structure from an ancestral East African population, characterized by a high M1 haplogroup frequency. The current structure of the Egyptian population may be the result of further influence of neighbouring populations on this ancestral population." (Stevanovitch A, Gilles A, Bouzaid E, et al. (2004) Mitochondrial DNA sequence diversity in a sedentary population from Egypt.Ann Hum Genet. 68(Pt 1):23-39.)"
--Tishkoff et al (2004)
quote: E-M78 subclades
The distribution of E-M78 subclades among Sudanese is shown in Table 2. Only two chromosomes fell under the paragroup E-M78*. E-V65 and E-V13 were com- pletely absent in the samples analyzed, whereas the other subclades were relatively common. E-V12* accounts for 19.3% and is widely distributed among Su-danese. E-V32 (51.8%) is by far the most common sub-clades among Sudanese. It has the highest frequency among populations of western Sudan and Beja. E-V22 accounts for 27.2% and its highest frequency appears to be among Fulani, but it is also common in Nilo-Saharan speaking groups.
[...]
The Fulani, who possess the lowest population size in this study, have an interesting genetic structure, effectively consisting of two haplogroups or founding lineages. One of the lineages is R-M173 (53.8%), and its sheer frequency suggests either a recent migration of this group to Africa and/or a restricted gene flow due to linguistic or cultural barriers. The high frequency of sub-clade E-V22, which is believed to be northeast African (Cruciani et al., 2007) and haplogroup R-M173, suggests an amalgamation of two populations/cultures that took place sometime in the past in eastern or central Africa. This is also evident from the frequency of the ‘‘T’’ allele of the lactase persistence gene that is uniquely present in considerable frequencies among the Fulani (Mulcare et al., 2004). Interestingly, Fulani language is classified in the Niger-Congo family of languages, which is more prevalent in West Africa and among Bantu speakers, yet their Y-chromosomes show very little evidence of West African genetic affiliation.
It seems, however, that the effective size of the pastorlists and nomadic pastoralists is generally much smaller than groups of sedentary agriculturalists life style. This is intriguing in the sense that one would expect nomadic tribes to be more able to admix, spread, and receive genes than their sedentary counterparts.
--Hisham Y. Hassan, Peter A. Underhill, Luca L. Cavalli-Sforza, and Muntaser E. Ibrahim
Y-Chromosome Variation Among Sudanese: Restricted Gene Flow, Concordance With Language, Geography, and History
quote: Y-chromosome haplogroup tree
The Y-chromosome haplogroup tree has been constructed manually following YCC 2008 nomenclature20 with some modifications.35 The tree (Supplementary Figure S1) contains the E haplogroups of Eritrean populations from this study and those reported in the literature.22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 Genotyping results for E-V13, E-V12, E-V22 and E-V32 reported for Eritrean samples and elsewhere23, 27 were retracted to E-M78 haplogroup level. All the analyses in this study were done at the same resolution using the following 17 bi-allelic markers: E-M96, E-M33, E-P2, E-M2, E-M58, E-M191, E-M154, E-M329, E-M215, E-M35, E-M78, E-M81, E-M123, E-M34, E-V6, E-V16/E-M281 and E-M75.
[...]
Median-joining (MJ) network. Network manipulated to fit the geography of the extant populations. MJ network was constructed using E haplogroup frequencies. Group represented by ITAL contains all the Italian samples pooled. Populations’ descriptions are given in Supplementary Table S1.
NJ tree based on FST values generated from Arlequin 3.11. Population names are as given in Supplementary Table S1. Population life style: circle – agriculturalists; square – pastoralists; triangle – nomads; inverted triangle – nomadic pastoralists; diamond – agro-pastoralists. The populations are colored according to their language family: red – Afro-asiatic; blue – Nilo-Saharan; green – Niger-Kordofanian; yellow – Khoisan; black – Italic and Basque.
[...]
Interestingly, this ancestral cluster includes populations like Fulani who has previously shown to display Eastern African ancestry, common history with the Hausa who are the furthest Afro-Asiatic speakers to the west in the Sahel, with a large effective size and complex genetic background.23 The Fulani who currently speak a language classified as Niger-Kordofanian may have lost their original tongue to as sociated sedentary group similar to other cattle herders in Africa a common tendency among pastoralists. Clearly cultural trends exemplified by populations, like Hausa or Massalit, the latter who have neither strong tradition in agriculture nor animal husbandry, were established subsequent to the initial differentiation of haplogroup E. For example, the early clusters within the network also include Nilo-Saharan speakers like Kunama of Eritrea and Nilotic of Sudan who are ardent nomadic pastoralists but speak a language of non-Afro-Asiatic background the predominant linguistic family within the macrohaplogroup.
[...]
The Sahel, which extends between the Atlantic coast of Africa and the Red Sea plateau, represents one of the least sampled areas and populations in the domain of human genetics. The position of Eritrea adjacent to the Red Sea coast provides opportunities for insights regarding human migrations within and beyond the African landscape.
--Eyoab I Gebremeskel1,2 and Muntaser E Ibrahim1
European Journal of Human Genetics (2014) 22, 1387–1392; doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.41; published online 26 March 2014
Y-chromosome E haplogroups: their distribution and implication to the origin of Afro-Asiatic languages and pastoralism EJHGOpen
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
| IP: Logged |
quote: Egypt's succeeding dynasty failed to reassert control over Cush.
In 590 B.C., however, an Egyptian army sacked Napata, compelling the Cushite court to move to a more secure location at Meroe near the sixth cataract.
For several centuries thereafter, the Meroitic kingdom developed independently of Egypt, which passed successively under Persian, Greek, and, finally, Roman domination. During the height of its power in the second and third centuries B.C., Meroe extended over a region from the third cataract in the north to Sawba, near present-day Khartoum, in the south.
lol! Viceroy and his bait threads. He is not worth the expended energy. No intellectual challenge. Quoting outdated topics and arguments.
Posts: 12143 | From: When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable | Registered: Jun 2007
| IP: Logged |
quote:Originally posted by xyyman: @TP. Shock and awe!
lol! Viceroy and his bait threads. He is not worth the expended energy. No intellectual challenge. Quoting outdated topics and arguments.
It's indeed not of worthy the time an effort.
29 individuals analysed in 1979
That was some expensive sh..., looking back it's a waste of money. Since it has gone nowhere anyway. They could have invested that money in "Nubian" children school projects, and later college funding.
quote: Genetic genealogy is more within reach of the average person than ever, thanks to advances in sequencing technology that have helped the cost of genome sequencing dramatically plummet from nearly $3 billion in 2000 to near $1,000 nowadays. That sort of price reduction is mind-boggling, Ball said. “It’s as if, 15 years from now, I could get my own Mars rover.”
Tukuler
multidisciplinary Black Scholar
Member # 19944
posted
This racialist dog!
Served a lot of dawg food I'd call you a mutt!
Before knowing ancient Sudan's and Nubia's importance Nehhesu were ratchets. Now since seeing Nehesi glory the early 20th century ruse of caucaisianizing them.
It's the incredible two headed bullshit monster calling the same peoples inferior black and superior white in one and the same breath.
Posts: 8179 | From: the Tekrur straddling Senegal & Mauritania | Registered: Dec 2011
| IP: Logged |
quote:Originally posted by viceroy: Keep Dreaming Afro Idiots!!
Science is Demolishing AfroFakeIdeas day by day!!
The End is Near!!!
quote:Originally posted by xyyman: @TP. Shock and awe!
lol! Viceroy and his bait threads. He is not worth the expended energy. No intellectual challenge. Quoting outdated topics and arguments.
LOL says the cold adapted dumbass. With outdated sources, and the dream rant, as a supposed counter argument.
Near end? If anything, sources show more and more that ancient Egyptians were indigenous Africans day by day. You are even too dumb to post a link, properly.
SCIENCE!
quote: . This disparity is suggested to be due to greater male response to poor nutrition in the earlier populations, and with the increasing development of social hierarchy, males were being provisioned preferentially over females.
Little change in body shape was found through time, suggesting that all body segments were varying in size in response to environmental and social conditions.
The change found in body plan is suggested to be the result of the later groups having a more tropical (Nilotic) form than the preceding populations.
--Zakrzewski SR1.
Am J Phys Anthropol. 2003 Jul;121(3):219-29. Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions.
quote: The results indicate overall population continuity over the Predynastic and early Dynastic, and high levels of genetic heterogeneity, thereby suggesting that state formation occurred as a mainly indigenous process.
--Zakrzewski SR1.
Am J Phys Anthropol. 2007 Apr;132(4):501-9. Population continuity or population change: formation of the ancient Egyptian state.
quote:"Nazlet Khater man was the earliest modern human skeleton found near Luxor, in 1980. The remains was dated from between 35,000 and 30,000 years ago. The report regarding the racial affinity of this skeleton concludes: "Strong alveolar prognathism combined with fossa praenasalis in an African skull is suggestive of Negroid morphology [form & structure]. The radio-humeral index of Nazlet Khater is practically the same as the mean of Taforalt (76.6). According to Ferembach (1965) this value is near to the Negroid average." The burial was of a young man of 17-20 years old, whose skeleton lay in a 160cm- long narrow ditch aligned from east to west. A flint tool, which was laid carefully on the bottom of the grave, dates the burial as contemporaneous with a nearby flint quarry."
--Thoma A., Morphology and affinities of the Nazlet Khater man, Journal of Human Evolution, vol 13, 1984.
quote:"The only other directly relevant specimen is Nazlet Khater 2, from 42 ka B.P. in Egypt . Approximately contemporaneous with the earliest EEMHs , it may represent the morphology of modern humans dispersing out of Africa after 50 ka B.P. However, in some features it is more archaic than the MPMHs, which raises questions as to the degree to which its ancestry was purely from the MPMHs and therefore whether it represents the ancestral modern human morphology."
--Erik Trinkau European early modern humans and the fate of the Neandertals (2007)
quote:"This finding is in agreement with morphological data that suggest that populations with sub-Saharan morphological elements were present in northeastern Africa, from the Paleolithic to at least the early Holocene, and diffused northward to the Levant and Anatolia beginning in the Mesolithic.
[...]
"From the Mesolithic to the early Neolithic period different lines of evidence support an out-of-Africa Mesolithic migration to the Levant by northeastern African groups that had biological affinities with sub-Saharan populations. From a genetic point of view, several recent genetic studies have shown that sub-Lines: 369 to 3770.0pt PgVar Normal PagePgEnds: TEX [554], Saharan genetic lineages (affiliated with the Y-chromosome PN2 clade; Underhill2 et al. 2001) have spread through Egypt into the Near East, the Mediterranean area, and, for some lineages, as far north as Turkey (E3b-M35 Y lineage; Cinniog¢lu et al. 2004; Luis et al. 2004), probably during several dispersal episodes since the Mesolithic (Cinniog¢lu et al. 2004; King et al. 2008; Lucotte and Mercier 2003;6 Luis et al. 2004; Quintana-Murci et al. 1999; Semino et al. 2004; Underhill et al.7 2001). This finding is in agreement with morphological data that suggest that populations with sub-Saharan morphological elements were present in northeastern Africa, from the Paleolithic to at least the early Holocene, and diffused northward10 to the Levant and Anatolia beginning in the Mesolithic.
"Indeed, the rare and incomplete Paleolithic to early Neolithic skeletal specimens found in Egypt—such as the 33,000-year-old Nazlet Khater specimen (Pinhasi and Semal 2000), the Wadi Kubbaniya skeleton from the late Paleolithic site in the upper Nile valley (Wendorf et al. 1986), the Qarunian (Faiyum) early Neolithic crania (Henneberg et al. 1989; Midant-Reynes 2000), and the Nabta specimen from the Neolithic Nabta Playa site in the western desert of Egypt (Henneberg et al. 1980)—show, with regard to the great African biological diversity, similarities with some of the sub-Saharan middle Paleolithic and modern sub-Saharan specimens. *This affinity pattern between ancient Egyptians and sub-Saharans has also been noticed by several other investigators (Angel 1972; Berry and Berry 1967, 1972; Keita 1995) and has been recently reinforced by the study of Brace et al. (2005), which clearly shows that the cranial morphology of prehistoric and recent northeast African populations is linked to sub-Saharan populations (Niger-Congo populations). These results support the hypothesis that some of the Paleolithic–early Holocene populations from northeast Africa were probably descendents of sub-Saharan ancestral populations."
--F X Ricaut · M Waelkens
Article: Cranial Discrete Traits in a Byzantine Population and Eastern Mediterranean Population Movements
Human Biology 11/2008; 80(5):535-64. DOI:10.3378/1534-6617-80.5.535 · 1.52 Impact Factor
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
| IP: Logged |
quote:Archeological and paleontological evidences point to East Africa as the likely area of early evolution of modern humans. Genetic studies also indicate that populations from the region often contain, but not exclusively, representatives of the more basal clades of mitochondrial and Y-chromosome phylogenies.
Most Y-chromosome haplogroup diversity in Africa, however, is present within macrohaplogroup E that seem to have appeared 21 000–32 000 YBP somewhere between the Red Sea and Lake Chad. The combined analysis of 17 bi-allelic markers in 1214 Y chromosomes together with cultural background of 49 populations displayed in various metrics: network, multidimensional scaling, principal component analysis and neighbor-joining plots, indicate a major contribution of East African populations to the foundation of the macrohaplogroup, suggesting a diversification that predates the appearance of some cultural traits and the subsequent expansion that is more associated with the cultural and linguistic diversity witnessed today. The proto-Afro-Asiatic group carrying the E-P2 mutation may have appeared at this point in time and subsequently gave rise to the different major population groups including current speakers of the Afro-Asiatic languages and pastoralist populations.
[...]
The network analysis on the chromosomes carrying E haplogroupswas robust enough with a main cluster near the root represented by Kunama (KUN) encompassing most of Eritreans and Sudanese populations, including Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speakerssuggesting that linguistic divergence is either a subsequent event topopulation divergence, language replacement or that the two linguisticfamilies may have shared a common origin.
[...]
--Eyoab I Gebremeskel1,2 and Muntaser E Ibrahim*,1
European Journal of Human Genetics advance online publication, 26 March 2014; doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.41
quote:Linguistics and writing can give some clues to migration or major cultural interactions. Semitic and perhaps Sumerian speakers in the Near East developed agriculture some 2,000 years before it emerged in the Nile Valley. If Egypt had been peopled by a mass migration of farmers from the Near East, ancient Egyptians would have spoken either a Semitic language or Sumerian (considered a language isolate, meaning that it has no obvious close relatives). Although certain major domesticated species used in Egypt came from the Near East, it is interesting to note that the words for these in Egyptian were not borrowed from any members of the Semitic family whose common ancestor had terms for them. They are all Egyptian. The beginnings of Egyptian writing can be traced back to the cultures that led to dynastic Egypt. Flora and fauna used in the hieroglyphs are Nilotic, indicating that the writing system developed locally, with some symbols traceable back to a period before the first dynasty rulers emerged. The titles for the king, major officials, and the royal insignia are Egyptian, which is of interest because one old theory held that the dynastic Egyptians or their elites came from the Near East; however, the archaeological evidence shows that they came from southern Egypt.
Linguistics and writing
-- S. O. Y. Keita, Senior Research Associate, National Human Genome Center, Howard University; Research Associate, Anthropology, Smithsonian Institute
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
| IP: Logged |
quote: There is clear evidence of lithic technological variability in Middle Paleolithic (MP) assemblages along the Nile valley and in adjacent desert areas. One of the identified variants is the Khormusan, the type-site of which, Site 1017, is located north of the Nile's Second Cataract. The industry has two distinctive characteristics that set it apart from other MP industries within its vicinity. One is the use of a wide variety of raw materials; the second is an apparent correlation between raw material and technology used, suggesting a cultural aspect to raw material management. Stratigraphically, site 1017 is situated within the Dibeira-Jer formation which represents an aggradation stage of the Nile and contains sediments originating from the Ethiopian Highlands. While it has previously been suggested that the site dates to sometime before 42.5 ka, the Dibeira-Jer formation can plausibly be correlated with Nile alluvial sediments in northern Sudan recently dated to 83 ± 24 ka (MIS 5a). This stage coincides with the 81 ka age of sapropel S3, indicating higher Nile flow and stronger monsoon rainfall at these times.
Other sites which reflect similar raw material variability and technological traditions are the BNS and KHS sites in the Omo Kibish Formation (Ethiopia) dated to ∼100 ka and ∼190 ka respectively. Based on a lithic comparative study conducted, it is suggested that site 1017 can be seen as representing behavioral patterns which are indicative of East African Middle Stone Age (MSA) technology, adding support to the hypothesis that the Nile Valley was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of MIS 4. Techo-typological comparison of the assemblages from the Khormusan sites with other Middle Paleolithic sites from Nubia and East Africa is used to assess the possibility of tracing the dispersal of technological traits across the landscape and through time.
--Mae Goder-Goldberger
The Khormusan: Evidence for an MSA East African industry in Nubia
Quaternary International 25 June 2013, Vol.300:182–194, doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.11.031 The Middle Palaeolithic in the Desert
quote:"Karl Butzer has estimated that two areas of greatest population density in dyanstic times were between Luxor{Waset} and Aswan {Elephantine} at the first cataract,and from Medium at the fayum entrance northwards to the apex of the Delta.
IN between was Middle Egypt,a geogrpahic buffer zone with a lower population density. It is worth bearing in mind that the total population of egypt at the time the Giza pyramids were built is estimated to have been 1.6 million,compared with 58 million in Ad 1995."
Mark Lehner, Page 7. The Complete Pyramids
"It is nonetheless probable that settlements were far more dispersed than they were in Upper Egypt, that overall population density was significantly lower, and that the northernmost one-third of the Delta was ALMOST UNDERPOPULATED in Old Kingdom times. In effect, a considerable body of information can be marshalled to show that the Delta was UNDERDEVELOPED and that internal colonization continued for some three millennia, until the late Ptolemaic era."
Climate-Controlled Holocene Occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa's Evolution Science 313, 803 (2006); DOI: 10.1126/science.1130989
quote:
100,000 BC
40,000 BC
19,000-10,000 BC
8,000-7,000 BC
6,500-5,000 BC
5,000-3,000 BC
Red dots are Paleolithic sites, while green dots are Neolithic sites.
--University College London (Digital Egypt for Universities)
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
| IP: Logged |
UBBFriend: Email this page to someone!
![[Big Grin]](biggrin.gif)
![[Roll Eyes]](rolleyes.gif)
Printer-friendly view of this topic