Ghana [He] Gives an audience to his people, in order to listen to their complaints and set them right…he sits in a pavilion around which stand 10 horses with gold embodied trappings. Behind the king stand 10 pages holding shields and gold mounted swords; on his right are the sons of princes of his empire, splendidly clad and with gold plaited in their hair. Before him sits the high priest, and behind the high priest sit the other priests…The door of the pavilion is guarded by dogs of an excellent breed who almost never leave the king's presence and who wear collars of gold and silver studded with bells of the same material.
Songhai Horse-mounted warrior holding a spear and clothed in armor. “The black chiefs . . . were habited in coats of mail composed of iron chain which covered them from the throat to the knees . . . their horses’ heads were also defended by plates of iron, brass, and silver….”
Overview
The Songhay tribe apparently began about 670 C.E. along the eastern banks of the Niger River, where they established the two main population centers of Gao and Koukia. The leading family was of Berber extraction, and their line ruled the Songhay into the 1300s. In 1005, the current king, Kossi, converted to Islam; about the same time, Gao became the capital city and the Songhay became a vassal to Mali. When Mali’s Emperor Mansa Musa made his famous pilgrimage to Mecca in the 1320s, his return trip brought him through Gao, where he took two royal sons back to his capital as hostages. One of the boys escaped and returned to Songhay in 1335, taking the name Sonni, or savior. He established a new dynasty and began the resistance to Mali that ultimately brought independence for his people.
The rise of the Sonni dynasty coincided with the decline of Mali. When Mali’s power slipped away in the late 1300s, the Songhay threw off their vassalage, but did not come into their own until the latter half of the 1400s. King Sonni Ali, the greatest ruler of his dynasty, brought Songhay to imperial power. He captured Timbuktu from the nomads in 1468 and invaded Mali’s old empire with a strong military force based on a river fleet operating on the Niger. The major trading center of Jenne fell to Songhay forces in 74 1473, but little inland progress was made against the remains of Mali’s people. Not until 1492, when Sonni Ali died, did Songhay troops make inroads into Mali’s countryside. Under the leadership of Askia Muhammad al-Turi, founder of a new dynasty, an improved infantry became strong enough to break away from the river fleet and strike inland. Askia Muhammad drove along the northern frontier of the old empire, defeating the last of Mali’s leaders and gaining vassals for himself. He dominated the old Ghanian empire and took control of the gold trade that had made the area rich and famous. Though kings of Mali remained in control of factions deep in the rugged countryside, they ultimately surrendered to reality and recognized Songhay’s control, paying them tribute. After Askia Muhammad was overthrown by his son in 1528, a series of dynastic struggles ensued. Ultimately, his grandsons Ishaq and Dawud ruled successfully from the 1530s to the 1580s.
The Askia dynasty embraced Islam much more strongly than did the Sonnis. Askia Muhammad imported Muslim scholars to Gao, Timbuktu, and Jenne, and he continued to maintain Timbuktu as the intellectual center of western Africa. He used the vast wealth of the empire to support Muslim clerics and build mosques, but the majority of the peoples he dominated remained loyal to their local gods. Under Askia Dawud, the Songhay Empire reached its intellectual and economic zenith. Trade across the Sahara became of greater importance than ever before, and Dawud supported the arts and sciences with royal patronage.
The Songhay ultimately fell to invaders from the north. After fighting upstart tribes in the southern part of the empire as well as sending forces to engage Berbers in Morocco, the empire was defeated by Moroccans with firearms. The empire broke up quickly in the wake of this defeat in 1591. In a matter of just a few years, the Songhay were reduced to their original holdings around Gao.
Millitary
Songhay conducted a draft and organized a professional army. The army–mostly made of slave battalions–lived in barracks separated from the civilian population. Mahnud Ka’ti wrote, “the great men of the Songhay were versed in the art of war. They were very brave, very bold and most expert in the deployment of military stratagems.” By 1591 the army totaled 40,000 (30,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry). Songhay warriors wore iron breastplates beneath their battle tunics, had lances, sabers and arrows with poisoned tips, and the infantry used leather and copper shields. The cavalry, like Mali, were the army’s elite unit. The army sounded long trumpets during battles.
Tradition and Trade
The majority of the Songhay people did not convert to Islam, about 97% kept their traditional religions. Some aspects of traditional religion were preserved, including the sacred drum, the sacred fire, and the old types of costume and hairstyle. As in Mali, there was a privileged caste of craftsmen, and slave labour played an important role in agriculture. Trade improved under Mohammed Ture Askiya, with gold, kola nuts and slaves being the main export. Textiles, horses, salt and luxury goods were the main imports. In 1510 and 1513, The Spanish Moroccan writer and traveller Leo Africanus visited Gao, the capital of Songhay. He was amazed at the wealth of the ruling class:
“The houses there are very poor, except for those of the king and his courtiers. The merchants are exceedingly rich and large numbers of Negroes continually come here to buy cloth brought from Barbarie (Morocco) and Europe…
Here there is a certain place where slaves are sold, especially on those days when the merchants are assembled. And a young slave of fifteen years of age is sold for six ducats, and children are also sold. The king of this region has a certain private palace where he maintains a great number of concubines and slaves.”
Leo Africanus’s visit to Timbuktu causes him to remark on the intellectual and professional classes.
“Here there are many doctors, judges, priests and other learned men, that are well maintained at the king’s cost. Various manuscripts and written books are brought here out of Barbarie and sold for more money than any other merchandise.
The coin of Timbuktu is of gold without any stamp or superscription, but in matters of small value, they use certain shells brought here from Persia, four hundred of which are worth a ducat and six pieces of their own gold coin, each of which weighs two-thirds of an ounce.”
FALL OF SONGHAY
In the late 16th century Songhay slid into civil war. Echoing the fates of Ghana, Mali and Kanem. The wealth and power of Songhay was also undermined by environmental change, causing droughts and diseases. But Songhay might have survived all this. The decisive factor in its downfall was the determination of the Moroccans to control the sub-Saharan gold trade.
Unfortunately for Songhay it was to be its very size that would lead to its downfall. A vastly spread empire, it encompassed more territory than could actually be controlled. After the reign of Askia Duad, subject peoples began to revolt. Even Songhay’s massive army, said to be over 35,000 soldiers, archers and cavalry, could not keep order. The first major region to declare independence was Hausaland; then much of the Maghreb (Morocco) rebelled and gained control over crucial gold mines. The Moroccans defeated Songhay in 1591 and the empire quickly collapsed. In 1612, the cities of Songhay fell into general disarray and one the greatest empires of African history disappeared from the world stage forever. Not since this time, has any African nation rose to prominence and wealth as did mighty Songhay.
Morocco won the war but lost the peace. The Sultans of Morocco eventually lost interest. The Moroccan garrison stayed but took to freelance looting and pillaging. The old empire split up, with the Bambara kingdom of Segu emerging as an important new force.
Ahmad al-Mansur and the Songhay Campaign
Ahmad al-Mansur (1549-1603) was an important figure in both Europe and Africa in the sixteenth century, his powerful army and strategic location made him an important power player in the late renaissance period. He was also the Muslim hero of one of most memorable battles in the centuries-long struggle between Christians and Muslims. Becoming ruler of Morocco after his elder brother Abd al-Malik died in the Battle of Alcazar or Wadi al-Makhazin, which occurred in 1578 and would once and for all end Portugal’s domination in Morocco. Alcazar is remembered as one of the famous battles in the long struggle between the two faiths.
Ahmad al-Mansur was suddenly a national hero, the living representation of Morocco’s strength and pride. The door for his reign opened and he charged through. He began by leveraging his dominant position with the vanquished Portuguese during prisoner ransom talks, the collection of which filled the Moroccan royal coffers. Shortly after, he began construction on the great architectural symbol of this new birth of Moroccan power and relevance; the grand palace in Marrakesh called al-Badi, or “the marvellous.”
Eventually the coffers began to run dry due to the great expense of supporting the military, extensive spy services, the palace and other urban building projects, a royal lifestyle and a propaganda campaign aimed at building support for his controversial claim to the Caliphate. In reality, Morocco’s standing with the Christian states was still in flux. The Spaniards and the Portuguese were still popularly seen as the infidel, but al-Mansur knew that the only way his regime would survive was to continue to benefit from alliances with the Christian economic powers. To do that Morocco had to control sizable gold resources of its own. Accordingly, al-Mansur was drawn irresistibly to the trans-Saharan gold trade of the Songhay in hopes of solving Morocco’s economic deficit with Europe.
The Songhay, was a pre-colonial African state centered in eastern Mali. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, it was one of the largest African empires in history. Its base of power was on the bend of the Niger River in present-day Niger and Burkina Faso. At its greatest extent (c. 1498), the Songhay sphere of power reached far down the Niger river into modern day Nigeria, all the way to the Northeast of modern day Mali, and even to a small part of the Atlantic coast in the West. Songhay trans-Saharan trade consisted primarily of gold, salt, and slaves.
It is pretty clear that al-Mansur’s designs in the Songhay campaign were economic, but he had other considerations as well. At home he sought support from powerful religious leaders by accusing the Songhay of being lax in their practice of Islam and thus a target for proper moral purification. He also sold the action domestically as being a vital step in establishing an African Caliphate. Geo-politically al-Mansur claimed his interests within the region were strictly part of a defensive jihad to halt further Ottoman expansion. The Sa’di ruler could point to the increasingly provocative Ottomans operating next door in Algeria to make his case for taking Songhay in order to create a buffer zone on Morocco’s southern flank.
At the time of al-Mansur’s incursion, a civil war over succession had weakened the Songhay power structure. Al-Mansur dispatched an invasion force under the leadership of Judar Pasha (a Spaniard by birth, who had been captured as a baby and educated at the Moroccan court). In 1591, after a cross-Saharan march, al-Mansur’s army appeared on the Niger. Though confronted by a much larger Songhay force, the firearms of the Moroccans won the day at the Battle of Tondibi. The cities of Gao and Timbuktu on the Sudanese trade route were captured, thus providing needed gold revenue to the central treasury.
However, as has often happened to victorious armies in unfamiliar lands, the Moroccan occupation force had great difficulty stabilizing and maintaining its power over the Songhay. Governing such a vast empire across such long distances proved too much for them. The occupation would continue to drain away blood and treasury as the situation deteriorated and they soon relinquished control of the region, letting it splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms. The Sa’dis lost final control of the cities shortly after the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603. The taking of the Songhay territories had been a strategic gamble for Ahmad al-Mansur, one that had not paid off in the long-run.
In short, through masterfully astute diplomacy, sometimes reminiscent of Machiavelli, al-Mansur resisted the demands of his nominal ruler, the Ottoman sultan, to preserve Moroccan independence. By playing the Europeans and Turks against one another al-Mansur excelled in the art of “balance of power” diplomacy. Eventually though he repeated the age-old error, he spent far more than he collected. To fix the problem, like many he attempted to expand his holdings through conquest. And though initially successful in their military campaign against the Songhay Empire, the Moroccans found it increasingly difficult to maintain control over the conquered locals as time went on. Meanwhile, as the Moroccans continued to struggle in the Songhay, their power and prestige on the world stage declined significantly. By the time of his death al-Mansur, who was a contemporary of Galileo and Shakespeare*, had lost not only most of the Songhay but his reputation and legacy was also reduced. In fact, the memory of the great Gen eral who was victorious at Alcazar and who built the greatest palace in Morocco has faded largely from view.
Posted by Jari-Ankhamun (Member # 14451) on :
Sunni Ali Ber lso known as Sunni Ali, Sonni Ali Ber (The Great).
There are two main sources of information about Sonni Ali. One is in the Islamic chronicles of the period, the other is through Songhai oral tradition. These sources reflect two different interpretations of Sonni Ali's role in the development of the Songhai Empire.
Sonni Ali was schooled in the traditional African arts of the region and was well versed in the forms and techniques of warfare when he came to power in 1464 in the small kingdom of Songhai, which was centred around its capital city of Gao on the Niger River. He was the 15th consecutive ruler of the Sonni dynasty, which had begun in 1335. One of Ali's ancestors, Sonni Sulaiman Mar, is said to have wrested Songhai away from the Mali Empire towards the end of the 14th century.
Although Songhai had once paid tribute to the rulers of Mali, the Mali Empire was now crumbling, and the time was right for Sonni Ali to lead his kingdom through a series of conquests at the old empires expense. By 1468 Sonni Ali had repulsed attacks by the Mossi to the south, and defeated the Dogon in the hills of Bandiagara. His first major conquest occurred the in following year when the Muslim leaders of Timbuktu, one of the great cities of the Mali Empire, asked for help against the Tuareg, the nomadic desert Berbers who had occupied the city since 1433. Sonni Ali took the opportunity not only to strike decisively against the Tuareg, but also against the city itself. Timbuktu became part of the fledgling Songhai Empire in 1469.
Sonni Ali is remembered in Songhai oral tradition as a magician of great power. Rather than following the Mali Empire system of Islamic city rule over a non-Islamic rural people, Sonni Ali mixed an unorthodox observance of Islam with traditional African religion. He was a man of the people rather than the elite ruling class of Muslim clerics and scholars. He is regarded as a great military commander who carried out a strategic campaign of conquest along the Niger River. He is said to have retaliated against the Muslim leadership within Timbuktu after they failed to provide promised transport for his troops to cross the river.
The chroniclers have a different viewpoint - Sonni Ali is portrayed as a capricious and cruel leader. In the 16th century chronicle of Abd ar Rahmen as-Sadi, a historian based in Timbuktu, Sonni Ali is described as an impious and unscrupulous tyrant. He is recorded as having massacred hundreds whilst plundering the city of Timbuktu - killing or driving out the Tuareg and Sanhaja clerics who had acted as civil servants, teachers, and as preachers at the Sankore mosque. In later years he is said to have turned on court favourites, ordering executions during temper tantrums.
Regardless of the circumstances, Sonni Ali learnt his lesson well. Never again was he left at the mercy of someone else's fleet. He built up a river-based navy of over 400 boats, and used them to good effect in his next conquest - the trading city of Jenne (now Djenné). The city was placed under siege, with the fleet blockading the port. Although it took seven years for the siege to work, the city fell to Sonni Ali in 1473. The Songhai Empire now incorporated three of the greatest trading cities on the Niger: Gao, Timbuktu, and Jenne. (All three had once been part of the Mali Empire.)
The Songhai Empire now had effective control over the lucrative Niger River trade (rivers formed the major trading routes within west Africa at that time) of gold, kola, grain, and slaves. The cities were also part of the important trans-Saharan trade route system which brought south caravans of salt and copper, as well as goods from the Mediterranean coast.
By 1476 Sonni Ali controlled the inland delta region of the Niger to the west of Timbuktu, and the lakes region to the south. Regular patrols by his 'navy' kept the trade routes open and tribute paying kingdoms peaceful. This is an extremely fertile region of west Africa, and it became a major producer of grain under his rule.
A 17th century chronicle tells the tale of Sonni Ali's slave-based farms. When he died 12 'tribes' of slaves were bequeathed to his son, at least three of which had been obtained when Sonni Ali initially conquered parts of the old Mali empire. Whereas under the Mali Empire slaves were individually required to cultivate a measure of land and provide grain for the king; Sonni Ali grouped the slaves into 'villages', each to fulfil a common quota, with any surplus to be used by the village. Under Sonni Ali's rule children born in such villages automatically became slaves, expected to work for the village or to be transported to the trans-Saharan markets.
Sonni Ali was brought up as part of an exclusive ruling class, a warrior horseman - the region was the best in Africa south of the Sahara for breeding horses. As such he commanded an elite cavalry, with which he was able to pacify the nomadic Tuareg to the north. With cavalry and navy he repulsed several attacks by the Mossi to the south -- including one major attack which reached all the way to the Walata region north west of Timbuktu! -- and defeated the Fulani of the Dendi region, which was then assimilated into the Empire.
Under Sonni Ali the Songhai Empire was divided up into territories which he placed under the rule of trusted lieutenants from his army. Traditional African cults and the observance of Islam were combined, much to the annoyance of Muslim clerics in the cities -- and plots were hatched against his rule. On at least one occasion a group of clerics and scholars at an important Muslim centre were executed for treason.
Sonni Ali died in 1492 as he returned from a punitive expedition against the Fulani. Oral tradition has him poisoned by Muhammad Ture, one of his commanders. A year later Muhammad Ture staged a coup d'etat against Sonni Ali's son, Sonni Baru, and founded a new dynasty of Songhai rulers. Askiya Muhammad Ture and his descendants were strict Muslims, who reinstated orthodox observance of Islam and outlawed traditional African religions.
In the centuries which followed his death Muslim historians recorded Sonni Ali as "The Celebrated Infidel" or "The Great Oppressor". Songhai Oral tradition records that he was the righteous ruler of a mighty empire which stretched over 3,200 kilometres (2,000 miles) along the Niger River. Askia Muhammad Toure Historians do not know much about Askia Muhammad's early life. They believe he was born in Gao, a town on the Niger River at the southern end of the Sahara Desert. He probably came from a devout Muslim family. He became well known in 1492, when he seized control of Songhai. This is what happened. Sunni Ali's son became emperor after his father's death. Shortly afterward, Muhammad led a Muslim rebellion against him. Although Muhammad had a smaller army, he defeated the emperor and claimed the throne himself. It was then that he took the name Askia. Askia became the name of the dynasty and the name of all its leaders.
Muhammad's primary goal was to create a strong Islamic empire. He set out to achieve this goal in several ways. One way was to expand his empire. He led a series of wars to convert non-Muslims to Islam. Under his rule, the Songhai empire grew until it covered as much territory as western Europe.
Muhammad also wanted a well-organized empire. He believed that this would make it easier to administer his newly conquered territories. He made Gao his capitol. He appointed directors of finance, justice, agriculture, waters, and forests using Songhai nobles, many of whom were related to him. Then he divided his empire into provinces and placed each province under a governor. He created a permanent army of paid soldiers. He set up a system for collecting taxes.
Muhammad also took strict religious control of his empire. He made Islam the official religion. He created regulations to make sure Islam was practiced properly. These changes made certain that Islam was practiced, but it also made it less popular.
Muhammad founded a dynasty that was to continue for a hundred years, but his reign did not end well. Even before his death, his children began fighting over the empire. In 1528, Musa, his eldest son, seized the throne. Posted by Jari-Ankhamun (Member # 14451) on :
Egypt
Predynastic Battle Scene The Gebel el Arak knife Depiction of a predynastic battle scene - Knife handle, Source: Black and white excerpt from a colour picture, 'Les merveilles du Louvre', Hachette
This flint knife with a carved ivory handle was found near Denderah. It is one of the oldest examples of bas-relief carving. The whole knife is 25 cm, the handle about 10 cm long.
It depicts two groups of men fighting each other. Those with short cut hair attacking from the left are armed with clubs, maces and short bows, while the long haired group seem to be unarmed. This points to the attack being a raid against civilians. Apart from the hairlength there are few differences between the two groups: they all wear loincloths or penile sheaths, are barefoot and - as far as one can tell - beardless and have uncovered heads. The fallen seem to belong to the short haired attackers.
Two different kinds of boats are shown. Those in the lower row have the crescent shape of Egyptian reed boats, while the flat keeled boats with the high prows and sterns look foreign; it has been suggested Mesopotamian. But there are Egyptian pictographs of such boats in both the eastern and western deserts as well as pictures on vases. The eastern desert rock-paintings pre-date similar Mesopotamian finds by generations.
That there were contacts between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the late fourth millennium BCE is not doubted, but chances are slim that this battle scene depicts an incursion of Mesopotamians into Egypt as has been proposed by some: the garb worn by the fighters of either group is more similar to traditional African than Near Eastern attire.
Egypt: Old Kingdom Egyptian Spearmen from the Tomb of Mesheti in Asyut The armed forces The army Until the takeover of Lower Egypt by the Hyksos, most conflicts the Egyptians had fought had been civil wars, where mainly armies of conscripted peasants and artisans led by noblemen opposed each other, or relatively short campaigns south into Nubia extending the southern borders of the realm, or east and west into the desert regions.
.....Commission which the eldest king's son, the treasurer of the god, commander of the army, Zaty, called Kenofer, executed. I was at the front of the people in the day of battle, I controlled the going in the day of attack, by my counsel...
Inscription at Hammamat by Djati, son of Imhotep First Intermediate Period J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 389f.
From the Old Kingdom on foreigners were incorporated into the army. The Egyptians possibly even signed contracts with foreign potentates to insure the supply of mercenaries. Weni who lived during the 6th dynasty wrote
.........When his majesty took action against the Asiatic sand-dwellers, his majesty made an army of many tens of thousands from all of Upper Egypt: ...; from Lower Egypt: ...; and from Irtjet-Nubians, Medja-Nubians, Yam-Nubians, Wawat-Nubians, Kaau-Nubians; and from Tjemeh-land."..................
The Autobiography of Weni Lichtheim M, Ancient Egyptian Literature Vol.1, p. 19
Nubian Medjay entered Egypt during the turmoils of the First Intermediate Period, formed mercenary archer units and served in the armed constabulary. They are known to have fought under Kamose against the Hyksos. Draftees fought in regional contingents, led by local noblemen. Ameni, son of Khnumhotep I led his men on several campaigns against Nubia
I sailed southward, as the son of a count, wearer of the royal seal, and commander in chief of the troops of the Oryx nome, as a man represents his old father, according to [his] favor in the palace and his love in the court. J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 519.
On his second expedition he
... sailed southward, with a number, 400 of all the choicest of my troops, who returned in safety, having suffered no loss. J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 520.
On a further campaign he led 600 of all the bravest of the Oryx nome. New kingdom The changing army of the New Kingdom The equipment was basic at the beginning of Egyptian history: something to throw at the enemy or hit him with (see a predynastic battle scene) and a heavy shield to hide behind, and the need to improve the weaponry remained small for a long time. After the Hyksos had taken control of the Delta [2], the Theban pharaohs of the 17th and 18th dynasties adopted new weapons and strategies, a prerequisite for empire building in the Middle East, a region where the constant development of new and better weapons was necessary for survival. Their presence also caused changes in the role of the military in Egyptian society. As the length of the campaigns grew, the use of conscripts became impractical, and the army turned professional, with the nobility in the role of officers and charioteers, and the king fighting among them, generally in closed ranks. Many specialized troops evolved, such as sappers with heavy shields using battering rams and scaling ladders, trench digging pioneers and, after the reconquest of Nubia, Kushite shock troops and Nubian archers.
This new army did not have all the centuries old traditions other social institutions had. It was therefore relatively easy for talented individuals to rise through the ranks. They could move into other segments of society and maintain exalted positions thanks to the gifts of land and slaves they received from the pharaohs, from Ahmose I onwards. Appreciation for this new nobility, its courage and achievements, was often expressed in inscriptions
The name of the brave man will last because of what he's done. It will never disappear from this earth.
A number of army commanders reached kingship, among them Horemheb and Ramses I (XIX Dynasty) and many kings surrounded themselves with former soldiers whose loyalty and self-sacrifice they had experienced. Didu, a professional soldier, was appointed to the post of responsible for the deserts east of Thebes, then became the king's envoy to foreign countries, later standard bearer of the king's guard, captain of the ship Meri-amen and finally commander of the police force. After a long and blameless service Neb-amen, another standard bearer, was appointed chief of police of western Thebes.
Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten), whose bodyguard consisted mostly of foreigners -Syrians, Libyans and Nubians - used the army to break the power of the priesthood and the bureaucrats. But after his death the military establishment made peace with the civil service and the clergy. Subsequent pharaohs had to take into account the interest of all three sectors. Apart from the regular infantry and the chariotry which under Seti I's reign appears to have been separate from the rest of the army already, there were apparently less professional units as well. The king speaks of the DAm.w, interpreted as militia, in a stela:
The good (god), son of Amun, who smites multitudes of persons, bringing captives (?) .... He loves the infantry and chariotry, the great noble, who protects the youth and brings up the militia of Egypt. Labib Habachi, The Two Rock Stelae of Sethos I in the Cataract Area Speaking of Huge Statues and Obelisks BIFAO 73 (1973) p.120
With the expanding empire and the need to find capable soldiers, the Egyptians began to induct prisoners of war into their army, such as Sherden captured during the incursions of the Sea Peoples.
Now his majesty had made ready his infantry and his chariotry, and the Sherden in his majesty's captivity whom he had brought back in the victories of his strong arm. They had been supplied with all their weapons, and battle orders had been given to them. The Poem of Pentaur M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume II, p. 63
Their loyalty to the throne was such, that Sherden only were chosen for the bodyguard of Ramses II. It was probably during the reign of Ramses II that the first regular mounted cavalry—as opposed to horse-drawn chariots—was introduced in any army, but it was only the Persians in the 6th century BCE who realized its full potential. The XIX and XX Dynasties saw some of the most spectacular exploits of Egyptian power but also its decline, with Egypt barely able to defend its frontiers and relying heavily on mercenaries. By the middle of the 12th century sixty percent of the soldiers were non-Egyptians.
Sheshonq I (XXII Dynasty) recreated the royal army after years of neglect
Sesonchosis created an elite of the most robust men... he raised 600,000 foot soldiers, 24,000 knights, 27,000 war chariots. He shared government with the companions of his youth, all experienced at fighting, full of bravery, numbering 1700 and more. Sesonchosis gave them the best land so they could devote themselves entirely to war, being economically secure.
Navy Egyptian squadrons composed of speedy keftiu [3], kebentiu from Byblos and Egyptian transports patrolled the eastern Mediterranean. Unlike the later Greeks who developed special naval techniques (used also by Late Period Egypt), maritime battles by New Kingdom Egyptians and their opponents, the Sea Peoples, were fought by seaborne land troops. The Egyptian deployment of archers and the fact, that Egyptian ships could both be sailed and rowed, gave them a decisive advantage, despite the inferiority of the vessels themselves, which were at times quite sizable carrying up to two hundred and fifty soldiers. But often the navy was little more than a means for getting land troops to where they were needed. Senusret III reached Nubia by ship
Master of the double cabinet, Sisatet, he saith: "I came to Abydos, together with the chief treasurer, Ikhernofret, to carve (a statue of) Osiris, lord of Abydos, when the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Khekure (Sesostris III), living forever, journeyed, while overthrowing the wretched Kush, in the year 19." J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 672
Soldiers could also be transported at great speed to the Asiatic coast where they came upon the rebellious Canaanites without warning. Thutmose III employed this technique with great success.
Egypt lost its role of maritime superpower after the end of the New Kingdom. Phoenicians and Greeks became the main players in the Mediterranean. Continental powers like the Persians used these sea-faring nations to impose their control on the seas. Egypt renewed its navy under Necho II, investing heavily in the development of biremes and was possibly among the inventors of the more powerful triremes in its attempt to fight off the Persians. It was unsuccessful and thereafter its fleet was at the behest of the foreign power controlling the country. Dozens of Egyptian ships were incorporated into the Persian fleet fighting the Greeks. The last of the Ptolemies, Queen Cleopatra VII joined forces with the Roman Marc Anthony, in an attempt to preserve Egypt's independence. But her fleet was defeated at Actium, which spelled out the end of pharaonic Egypt.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
And you had all sorts of such horsemen and warriors all across Africa throughout history. It is only in recent times since European conquest that the glory of Africa's horsemen and traditions in arms, armor and culture has been downplayed. Also note the Tuareg like veils on these Nigerians. This is due to the fact that Tuareg culture is intimately tied to inner Africa, because much of their textiles come from West Africa and places like Kano.
The Sad part is that Nigeria's textile production has COLLAPSED in recent years, as another victim of the pressure to DESTROY Africa's ability to feed, clothe, house and educate itself.
-------------------------------- This is due to the fact that Tuareg culture is intimately tied to inner Africa --------------------------------
What is "inner Africa"?
The Tuareg are deeper inside Africa than those ethnic groups on the coasts on any part of Africa. Therefore since the Tuareg are in the desert why do you speak of them as being an anomaly to "inner Africa"?
Wouldn't the Tuareg be more representative of "inner Africa" than the people of the present day nation of Ghana? If not, why?
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
What I was saying is that some people associate the Tuareg with "meditteranean" people and culture, which is absolutely incorrect. Of course they are inner African people and also of course this inner African culture also reached up to and beyond the Mediterranean as well.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
^ Doug, pay no attention to the twisted homosexual deviant who truly has no interests in the topics of this forum, but rather just wants to start stuff.
Anyway, I find what you say correct-- that is to say African culture has a continuity from the 'inner' part of the continent to its coasts. What I find ironic is the continued Eurocentric ruse of 'Berbers' being seperate from blacks. As if there are no black Berbers when the Tamashek (Tuareg) are just one of many examples of black Berbers, and that even such black groups are found as far north as the Mediterranean coast. Which is why I also find the use of "Mediterranean" to the exclusion of blacks also hilarious.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
This horse calvary tradition extends from West Africa to Sudan. And these are the types of troops that were so important in Moorish Spain, albeit with their own distinct style.
A fairly decent article on African military history:
quote: Spearman and bowman versus gunman
The history of the Angolan region offers instructive detail on the advantages and limitations of firearms, as well as a comparison of African versus European systems. Portugese troops often turned in excellent performances, but their sources sometimes exaggerate the number of native enemies defeated, giving a misleading picture of the military situation. One source for example claims opposing armies of over one million African enemy troops, a highely dubious figure according to some modern historians.[37] It is clear that firearms conferred an undoubted tactical advantage both in African and European battfields,[38], but such success was influenced by other factors such as terrain, weather, morale and the enemy response. The record is mixed. Using time, organization and superior numbers, indigenous forces sometimes neutralized or defeated troops with firearms.[39] In the Zambesi basin in 1572 for example, a 600-man force of Portuguese arquebusiers, supplemented with cannon, formed a disciplined square, and defeated several thousand Africans armed with bows, spears and axes. Portuguese gains from the encounter however amounted to little less than 50 cows when the smoke cleared, and their mission to control the gold mines of Mwene Mutapa failed. Indeed they were forced to pay tribute to the native Mutapa state in return for the right to limited mining.[40]
When the whole record is analyzed, gun-armed European troops met defeat on several occasion by charging spearmen or African infantry using poisoned arrows.[41] In 1684 for example, the spearmen and bowmen of Changamire Dombo met the Portuguese in open combat at Mahungwe. Firearms inflicted heavy casualties on the African force, but the prolonged battle stretched into the darkness and night attacks forced a Portuguese withdrawal. In the 1690's Dombo's forces returned to achieve victory in a fast-moving campaign that expelled the Portuguese from all their settlements on the Zimbabwe plateau. This triumph effectively terminated the future presence of the Portuguese in the area, cutting them off from the gold mines. Overall, Portugal's foothold in the region was to remain tenuous for at least 2 centuries.[42] These and other incidents illustrate both the power and limitations of firearms in African military systems. The later observations of Zulu King Chaka on the efficacy of firearms versus African alternatives were thus not unreasonable. It should be noted however that several of the Angolan kingdoms integrated a mix of gunmen with their indigenous fighting forces, adding to the diversity of arrangements for combat.[43] This integration of new technology with existing systems is similar to the pike-musket-crossbow combinations seen when firearms were introduced to European battfields.[44]
The cavalry empires of the savannah
Contrary to popular Western impressions, sub-Saharan Africa did produce significant cavalry forces where the environment permitted it. The savannahs of Western Africa in particular (Guinea, Gambia, Senegal, Niger etc) and its borderlands into the Sahara and Sahel saw the development of several powerful cavalry-based states that dominated the region for centuries.[45] Where the tsetse fly was not strong, and the terrain was favorable, the mounted horseman came into his own, and emerged as the true aristocracy of the savannah. As they did further north in Carthage, Egypt and Libya, the introduction of the horse, (and to some extent the camel in desert areas) had a transformational effect on African warfare.
Arms, equipment and weaponry
Cavalry weapons and armor. Among the Fulani-Hausa armies of Sokoto, both horse and rider were shielded. The horse was generally covered by quilted cotton, stuffed with kapok fiber, and its rider generally rode into battle with finely wrought chain mail, or heavy quilted armor. The chain mail armor showed similarities to Mameluke design, but the quilting combined local invention with religious inspiration. Local armorers sew tightly rolled wads of paper inscribed with Quaranic verses into the layers of cotton, and kapok. Whatever their spiritual powers, they could often blunt sword cuts, but were less effective against arrows.[46] Body armor was supplemented by reinforced leather helmets, and tough shields of elephant or hippo hide. Horse stirupps often made effective weapons in a close fough melee, disemboweling enemy mounts and wounding enemy infantry.
The hand weapons of the Sudanic cavalry were the sword, lance, battle-axe and broad-bladed spear. Throwing javelins, a weapon used by the Numidian horsemen of Hannibal in antiquity, also saw service, paritcularly in the Senegal and Niger valleys. Quivers holding 10-20 of these weapons were used with such speed and skill that at least one 17th century account compares them favorably to firearms.[47]. Among the Mossi, horseman wore as many clothes as possible to protect against enemy arrows. Four or five tunics, reinforced by leather and various magical or religious charms made up his armor. Horses were protected with large pieces of leather, with a large front piece of copper for the horse's head. Traditional village groups- commoners - were perennial prey for the Mossi, and they often defended themselves by strengthening village fortifications. Blacksmiths made arrows, spears and other weapons from iron mined and smelted in Mossi country. The Mossi sometimes tipped their cavalry lances with the same poison used by archers.
Weapons of the supporting infantry. Foot-soldiers were often disparaged and considered less important in the savannah empires but units like archers rendered good service. Bow strength was comparatively weak according to some writers, averaging only 40 pounds at full draw. The use of poisoned arrows from the West African plant, Strophantus hispidus and other sources however, helped rectify this shortcoming, and bowmen were skilled at delivering a large volume of shafts.[48] Among tribes such as the Marka poisoned arrows were about 1 ft long, tipped with iron and poison, and unfeathered. Archers generally carried quivers filled with 40-50 arrows each. Volume could he heavy, with some men firing two arrows at a time. Volume made up for the lack of accuracy with the unfeathered arrows. Resupply arrangements were not well articulated- an archer exhausting his quiver generally withdrew from the field.
quote: Most war-canoes were constructed of a single log, with inner space for rowers and warriors, and facilities such as hearths and sleeping quarters. Warriors and rowers were armed with bow, shield and spear. Firearms increasingly supplemented traditional weapons.
quote: Naval warfare on the open sea did not occur much outside northern Africa. However on inland waterways, massive war canoes, some carrying over 120 men, appear in both West and East Africa. Here 2 kingdoms face off for a naval clash on the East African Great Lakes.
Benin Earthworks:
quote: Fortifications were important in African warfare and societies. The ramparts of 15th century Benin are described as the world's most extensive earthwork according to the Guinness Book of Records.
quote: A six thousand five hundred kilometres square cluster of community earthworks run for about sixteen thousand kilometers in the Benin rainforest zone. The core of this cluster consists of tightly packed small settlement enclosures with narrow cordons sanitaires (no-man's-lands), and date back to about the C8th A.D. On the periphery, the earthworks have larger, wider-spaced primary enclosures (including that of Benin itself), much broader cordons sanitaires and date up to about the C15th A.D. Further west, around Ijebu-Ode, a 15 metres deep, 150 kilometres earthwork, is apparently an extension of the same technique depicting a later stage of socio-political development in an adjacent culture.
quote:The Songhay tribe apparently began about 670 C.E. along the eastern banks of the Niger River, where they established the two main population centers of Gao and Koukia. The leading family was of Berber extraction
The Songhai are a Nilo-Saharan people and Sunni Ali Ber (who actually hated Muslims and persecuted them), the founder, was of Songhai lineage as were the people who established Gao under Dia Kossoi in the 11th century prior to their break from Mali. The Berber rulers of Gao-Sane had no impact on the ruling families of the Songhai or Mande in the capital who eventually gained dominance over the entire region and were representative of the ethnic structure of Gao. It's funny seeing how the same situations extended its self to Ghana, leading to similar claims. Albeit that Berber rulers running their own cheiftoms were present, but when you have a people who over throw you and name a kingdom after their own clan, then where's the justification in claiming that this said kingdom was "ruled" initially by Berbers?
Posted by alTakruri (Member # 10195) on :
Very good thread with excellent photos. I think the described and depicted are highly disciplined soldiers and not a one a mere warrior. Sorry I have nothing more substantial than that to post for now.
Posted by argyle104 (Member # 14634) on :
So Doug according to the propagandic sketches you believe in the white man's propaganda of the arab/berber/muslim, mixed/influenced africans who were masters over the true negroes who were not arab/berber/muslim, mixed/influenced.
This is some pitiful dung. What a tool.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
(Jingle bells in West Africa?)
Posted by Chrome-Soul (Member # 16889) on :
up
Posted by StTigray (Member # 16910) on :
You dont mind if I show these pics to my class when we go over the West African Empires do you?
Posted by Serpent Wizdom (Member # 7652) on :
i surely see the strong islamic influence.
Posted by Brada-Anansi (Member # 16371) on :
up
Posted by Just call me Jari (Member # 14451) on :
Bump gonna need this info
Posted by TruthAndRights (Member # 17346) on :
I've got a hardback photography book: Yann Arthus-Bertrand "Horses", and there are pages within this book that contain the most stunning photographs of African horsemen and their beautiful steeds...just breathtaking....
It's not possible for me to scan these pages in; but I will see if I can locate any of them, even if just a couple, on the net...
Posted by TruthAndRights (Member # 17346) on :
Found some of them!:
Posted by TruthAndRights (Member # 17346) on :
Posted by TruthAndRights (Member # 17346) on :
btw, the pictures above are contained within a section of the book called "From the Maghrib to the Sudan"....
Posted by Sundjata (Member # 13096) on :
^I forgot about this thread.
BTW, those images are stunning TruthandRights, you were not exaggerating! Thanks for sharing.
Posted by Whatbox (Member # 10819) on :
If you'd just post some pictures of some Tuareg, they b som mean ass lookin muhfuggas. OMG, specially the lone ones some one catches in the desert. They often have the hard look I'd imagine a lone Cowboy Dead-or-Alive Bountyhead would have.
Posted by TruthAndRights (Member # 17346) on :
quote:Originally posted by Whatbox: If you'd just post some pictures of some Tuareg, they b som mean ass lookin muhfuggas. OMG, specially the lone ones some one catches in the desert. They often have the hard look I'd imagine a lone Cowboy Dead-or-Alive Bountyhead would have.
Ask and you shall receive:
Posted by TruthAndRights (Member # 17346) on :
quote:Originally posted by Sundjata: ^I forgot about this thread.
BTW, those images are stunning TruthandRights, you were not exaggerating! Thanks for sharing.
No problem! Always happy to share, and glad you liked them.
Every single photograph, without exception, within that book is stunning (again said without exaggeration, lol)...if you are interested in photography, I recommend you grab a copy of it. It's a large heavy hardback book, filled with nothing but breathtaking photography (each photograph accompanied by a lil info about the photo) of people/cultures from around the globe with their horses (as well as exquisite pictures of the horses themselves)...
Posted by The Gaul (Member # 16198) on :
Since it's obvious that a lot of our youth's first choice in research is wikipedia, someone may want to go and edit the cavalry page:
Africa is completely left out outside of a half-sentence mention of New Kingdom AE.
Posted by Sundjata (Member # 13096) on :
^Anybody can edit those wiki pages. Why don't you just do it since you brought it up?
Posted by The Gaul (Member # 16198) on :
quote:Originally posted by Sundjata: ^Anybody can edit those wiki pages. Why don't you just do it since you brought it up?
Obviously, if I'm asking that someone else do it it can be for the following reasons:
1. It requires some sort of login which I do not have.
2. It needs to be done accurately and with the best images as the other regions are done, which at the moment, I do not have the time to do(studying for membership in an analyst's charter) even if I could. I wouldn't just throw something together haphazardly.
I brought here to bring attention to it. Thanks.
Posted by HidayaAkade (Member # 20642) on :
Any more? How about south or central Africa?
Posted by mena7 (Member # 20555) on :
Jari Great thread about ancient African armies.Great pictures of African cavalry. Next Jari You can post ancient African weapons like sword, spear, bow and arrow, axe, throwing knife, shield etc.The Kaskara Sudanese sword is very beautiful. Posted by HidayaAkade (Member # 20642) on :
Here's some weaponry:
This distinctive knife from the Yoruba people of Nigeria has a bronze cast figurative hilt.
Shona Prestige Knives - Zimbabwe
Sudanese spears Posted by HidayaAkade (Member # 20642) on :
bump
Posted by kikuyu22 (Member # 19561) on :
Good thread but we shouldn't fall into the trap of romanticising our history. IMO,the relevant issue should be how many African states TODAY have functioning armies that can field a competent force in the field? Not many!
Posted by HidayaAkade (Member # 20642) on :
I don't think anybody is, rather we are just relaying info on the said topic...
![[Cool]](cool.gif)
and their beautiful steeds...just breathtaking....![[Smile]](smile.gif)
Found some of them!:
![[Wink]](wink.gif)
Ask and you shall receive:
