quote:but since most other African religions share a predynastic -or even dynastic(I know most of you people won't believe me on this one, but I've found a lot of facts irrefutably confirming it)- origin with AE culture, and Egypt is just a small portion of Africa moreover widely islamized, I still believe that survivances of AE culture can mostly be found in non-Egyptian Africa where traditional religions and cultures are still widely practicized
Pax Dahomenias brought up an interesting point about similarities between ancient Kmt and other areas in Africa.
One major African component that was admitted by even early Egyptologist like Henri Frankfort is divine-king-ship and the rain-maker king. I have read that certain festivals like the hed-seb festival was similar to contemporary African traditions. Reading this from mainstream sources. One book I read was by Theodore Celenko entitled Egypt in Africa[unfortunately out of print].
Pax Dahomenias, I would appreciate if you or others would be kind enough to tell us more about these connections.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
It is funny you should mention the Rainmaker king, because I posted something pertaining to this a while back:
Kingship:
The Rainmaker concept Among the Lulubo and Lokoya, responsibility for the various aspects of the natural environment that can be critical for community survival is allocated to the different clans. In case of a crisis (drought, infertility) the clan associated with the problem, is the target of investigations. The main investigation strategy is to check, one by one, the quarrels members of that clan have been involved in. When such a conflict has been identified, a solution is suggested: by way of reconciliation or restitution. Of particular interest are provocations of the responsible clan official. If a settlement of the dispute fails to bring the required result, there will be more rounds of investigation. If no solution is found the official of the clan associated with the disorder will be suspected of deliberately sabotaging the community. Accusations and counter-accusations will be thrown back and forth. The clan-official stands face-to-face with the community. If the disaster subsides, and if he uses the expectations focused on him cleverly, he may come out as a more powerful and wealthier member of the community. If the disaster prolongs, and there are no other candidates left to be blamed, he must be killed. He ends up as the scapegoat of his community.
This type of drama is most elaborate in the case of the Rainmaker. Of the various public concerns the weather has the greatest dramatic potential. Rains are capricious and localised. Rain falls over a period of 9 months. Its timeliness is a precondition for the two main harvests. The tension is particularly high in June when the first crop is about to be harvested and the annual period of hunger is peaking. The power of Rainmakers is built on this suspense. If they manage the rains well they gain in prestige. If the rains fail the community turns against its Rainmaker blaming him or her of drought. For as long as the drought persists, the confrontation between the king and his community will escalate. The process follows the steps listed in the attached table. It may ultimately lead to the Rainmaker being killed. In the area I studied I identified 26 cases of accomplished killings of kings within living memory. As the crisis deepens and the need for a solution rises all members of the community, including women and children, are gradually drawn into the process. It is the most dramatic manifestation of the community acting as a unified entity…
The clan-leaders, Rainmakers, the Master of the Bush, Master of the Soil, the Master of Birds etc. are given recognition by being given designated parts of game after a hunt, the first catch of white ants, etc. They may be reminded of their responsibility by an annual sacrifice at the beginning of the season. Clan- officials are also called on on a private basis: to bless a newly cleared field, heal barrenness, to protect against pests…
Between the different ecological responsibilities, rain is the most important. The importance not only depends on its practical importance for agriculture but also on its potential for generating social consensus during a period of crisis. While the Rainmaker usually shares the title of ‘King’ (Lulubo ‘osi’, Lokoya, ‘ohobu’ Lotuho ‘hobu’) with two or three other officials (usually fertility and soil) their cosmological position as ‘kings of heaven’ is matched by the highest social status.
Reciprocity in the management of natural order may be negative as well as positive. If the members of the community provoke the clan official, disorder will follow: leopards may turn up at unusual places, the soil will turn infertile, and women have miscarriages. Initial solutions for addressing such disorder are through mechanisms of exchange, by way of restitution and restoration. However the reciprocity is not between the community and the environment but between different clans using their ecological powers to blackmail others and create dependency…
In few ethnographic areas is the continuity between kingship and divinity, captured in Rene Girard’s famous phrase that “gods are dead kings as much as sacred kings are gods who have not yet died”, so easily visible as in the Nilotic world. The death of the Eastern Nilotic Rainmaker/King plays a key role. If he dies as a victim of the crowd, his death is expected to release the rain and to re-activate ecological normality. If the King dies a non-violent death his powers will remain active for at least one complete season. For that period the tomb will be the object of ritual attention. For about one year after his death the King will not be succeeded. The dead King reigns. Before the new rainy season, after the tomb has been flattened, a new person will take over. We could say that these kings enjoy a short-lived divinity. The power of the king and that of divinity are continuous. The same terms are used for both. To say that a certain rainmaker’s powers are effective the Lulubo will say: the man is really ‘ juok’ . “Juok’ is the word used for God
Source: http://www.bezinningscentrum.nl/teksten/girard/s/Simonse_Simon_1.htm ... an interesting piece that goes over the impact of ecological situations on interaction within communities and visa versa, how that ties into Kingship and ritualisation. The above is the example for the Rainmaker.
Pax Dahomensis, amongst others, has mentioned many possible connections between Niger Valley cultures, Sahelian and the Nile Valley cultures in your Nile Valley forum, which is one reason I believe that that forum should at least be saved for linking or future references, if there are no intentions for reviving it. In Pax's case, he has access to a number African published work in French or Francais, including Egyptological work, and I was amazed at the number of names I had not heard before. Anyway, it is of my opinion that, it was a good idea to open up this topic, since some of the things mentioned about these possible connections, which were previously spread out in different threads, may well now be placed under one thread.
Posted by Myra Wysinger (Member # 10126) on :
quote:Originally posted by Supercar: It is funny you should mention the Rainmaker king, because I posted something pertaining to this a while back: . . . . it was a good idea to open up this topic, since some of the things mentioned about these possible connections, which were previously spread out in different threads, may well now be placed under one thread.
I would like to add a quote from another thread posted by Ausar:
"Here is an excerpt from a book by Cyril Aldred about the rainmaker king:
But although the purely archeological evidence might appear to demonstrate a parallel development in the two areas, we know that in fact this, though superfically existing in material culture, was not the product of indentical societies, nor was it leading to such state of affairs. In Mesopotamia the beginnings of little independent city-states under tutelary gods, rulers, councils and assemblies are perceptible, though later to be submerged in a familar pattern of oriental despotism, but in Egypt from the beginning we are able to glimpse that essentially African figure, the omnipotent, rainmaking, god-king. The prehistoric cheiftain, a rainmaker and medicine-man, with magic power over the weather and therefore able to keep his people in health and prosperity becomes with the founding of the first, the Pharoah, a divine king being in command over the Nile and able to substain and protect the notion."
page 9
Cyril Aldred Egypt to the End of the Old Kingdom
following text taken from The Dawn of Civilization by Professor Stuart Piggott
Posted by alTakruri (Member # 10195) on :
It's important to keep Piggott's single quote marks in his piece of text, otherwise what I feel is an error in interpretation happens. An Egyptian rainmaker seems on the incredible side, considering Nile flood not rain from clouds ensured soil fertility. Here's the intact quote from Piggott, who edited the Library of Early Civilizations series of which Aldred's book Egypt to the End of the Old Kingdom is one volume:
quote: But although the purely archaeological evidence might appear to demonstrate a parallel development in the two areas, we know that in fact this, though superficially existing in material culture, was not the product of identical societies, nor was it leading to such state of affairs. In Mesopotamia the beginnings of little independent city-states under tutelary gods, rulers, councils and assemblies are perceptible, though later to be submerged in a familiar pattern of oriental despotism, but in Egypt from the beginning we are able to glimpse that essentially African figure, the omnipotent, rain-making, god-king. 'The prehistoric chieftain, a rain-maker and medicine-man, with magic power over the weather and therefore able to keep his people in health and prosperity' becomes, with the founding of the first historical dynasties, 'the Pharoah, a divine being in command over the Nile and able to sustain and protect the nation'.
There was no rain-maker king over Egypt but the concept of controlling life giving waters, in Egypt's case the Nile river, was assumed by the rulers right from the start of dynastic government.
quote:Originally posted by Ausar: "Here is an excerpt from a book by Cyril Aldred about the rainmaker king:
But although the purely archeological evidence might appear to demonstrate a parallel development in the two areas, we know that in fact this, though superfically existing in material culture, was not the product of indentical societies, nor was it leading to such state of affairs. In Mesopotamia the beginnings of little independent city-states under tutelary gods, rulers, councils and assemblies are perceptible, though later to be submerged in a familar pattern of oriental despotism, but in Egypt from the beginning we are able to glimpse that essentially African figure, the omnipotent, rainmaking, god-king. The prehistoric cheiftain, a rainmaker and medicine-man, with magic power over the weather and therefore able to keep his people in health and prosperity becomes with the founding of the first, the Pharoah, a divine king being in command over the Nile and able to substain and protect the notion."
page 9
Cyril Aldred Egypt to the End of the Old Kingdom
following text taken from The Dawn of Civilization by Professor Stuart Piggott
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
It is a shame, but back when I was a kid, I remember seeing a lot of National Geographic shows about Africa that I can NOW say showed clear links between Egypt and Africa. There are other pieces of information I have found in papers, magazines and other places that also show how Africa is the mother of Egyptian civilization. Things I hav noticed:
1) Tribes that stage elaborate ceremonies with boats on rivers celebrating kings, the gods or both (with similar styles to AE boats). (I saw this at a African festival about 15 years ago)
2) Tribes where the people wear loin cloths and other clothing very similar to AE depictions. (Various national geographic tv spots)
3) Tribes with hairstyles very similar to AE hairstyles. (same as above)
4) Priests as far south as South Africa who wear garb EXACTLY like the priests in AE art (animal skins, scepters, feathers, etc). (news articles)
5) Cultures that feature gold as a significant part of their cermonies and culture. (magazines, etc)
6) The use of masks in ceremonies to reperesent gods and animal spirits. (same as above)
7) Tribes that use totems and standards to represent various dieties and symbols of kingship. (same)
8) The wearing of flat broad necklaces around the neck, quite similar in style those in AE. (same)
9) All manner of headresses similar to those from AE. (same)
Unfortunately it is hard to put all this into a comprehensive set of definative references, but my suspicion is that anthropologists and others who have studied Africa have known these things ALL ALONG, but keep it SEPARATE from Egyptian history/culture on purpose.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
It should be noted that when the climate changed and Egypt no longer recieved rain, the Pharoah became known as a kind of 'River-flooder' so to speak!
There was an interesting program on Discovery channel about how it was the pharaoh's divine duty to make the Nile flood for his people, in the same way that kings in Sudan were suppose to bring rain to his people.
Posted by Myra Wysinger (Member # 10126) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: 6) The use of masks in ceremonies to reperesent gods and animal spirits. (same as above)
My question:
Did the people of Ancient Egypt have masks like they had in other parts of Africa?
I found this:
Ka masks were placed on the sarcophagus of the deceased to aid the person's spirit after death. The Egyptians believed that the spirit could wander freely from its tomb to revisit places and people it had known in life. However, if the spirit could not find its body upon its return, the spirit would be cursed to wander the earth forever without anywhere to rest. Fortunately, a ka mask, modeled after the appearance of the deceased inside, would allow the spirit to recognize its sarcophagus upon its return. AGE: Late Period, ca. 600-400 B.C.
Type of mask: Web Page Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
It cannot be emphasized enough how irritating this term 'tribe' is, when it comes to talking about African ethnic groups.
Posted by Myra Wysinger (Member # 10126) on :
quote:Originally posted by Supercar: It cannot be emphasized enough how irritating this term 'tribe' is, when it comes to talking about African ethnic groups.
Webster dictionary:
"a social group comprising numerous families, clans, or generations together with slaves, dependents, or adopted strangers"
I going to stop using the term "tribe".
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Myra Wysinger:
I going to stop using the term "tribe".
Courtesy would be much appreciated.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by Myra Wysinger:
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: 6) The use of masks in ceremonies to reperesent gods and animal spirits. (same as above)
My question:
Did the people of Ancient Egypt have masks like they had in other parts of Africa?
I found this:
Ka masks were placed on the sarcophagus of the deceased to aid the person's spirit after death. The Egyptians believed that the spirit could wander freely from its tomb to revisit places and people it had known in life. However, if the spirit could not find its body upon its return, the spirit would be cursed to wander the earth forever without anywhere to rest. Fortunately, a ka mask, modeled after the appearance of the deceased inside, would allow the spirit to recognize its sarcophagus upon its return. AGE: Late Period, ca. 600-400 B.C.
I believe that the only difference between Egypt and the rest of Africa is that they built in stone and left images of their religious practices and texts for us to study. The masks I am referring to are the masks worn by the dieties like horus, anubis, etc, which in turn is VERY similar to the way priests represent various dieties by using masks of animal spirits, etc in OTHER African cultures, during their religious festivals. The key here is that African ceremonies try to INVOKE the spirits of the gods using trances, masks, actors and priests to symbolize the connection between the spirits and the people. I think the Egyptian way of representing the gods grows out of this VERY ANCIENT African tradition.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
The greatest problem we have to day is the destruction of African cultures by colonialism, war, disease, hunger and religious fanaticism. Therefore, it is hard to study African cultures, because of the affects these things have had on them.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: I believe that the only difference between Egypt and the rest of Africa is that they built in stone and left images of their religious practices and texts for us to study.
What about the Great Zimbabwe, the stone walls of Jenne Jeno, the megaliths of the Sahara, the artistic impressions left by the Nok? I suppose I could go on with other examples. To understand the history of Africans, the peopling of the continent is a must know, not to mention linguistic reconstructions, and chronology of cultural processes such as those of economy or subsistence. The key to avoid making incorrect observations about Africans, is to thoroughly research Africa.
Posted by ausar (Member # 1797) on :
quote:My question:
Did the people of Ancient Egypt have masks like they had in other parts of Africa?
I found this:
Ka masks were placed on the sarcophagus of the deceased to aid the person's spirit after death. The Egyptians believed that the spirit could wander freely from its tomb to revisit places and people it had known in life. However, if the spirit could not find its body upon its return, the spirit would be cursed to wander the earth forever without anywhere to rest. Fortunately, a ka mask, modeled after the appearance of the deceased inside, would allow the spirit to recognize its sarcophagus upon its return. AGE: Late Period, ca. 600-400 B.C.
Type of mask: Web Page
Hello Myra,
Actually there is a big debate on wheather the anceint Egyptian wore masks for ceremonial purposes as did other Africans. The following debate is illustrated in the book Egypt in Africa by Theodore Celenko. A Egyptologist named Arlene Wolinski also contend that masks were used as ceremonial puproses. We don't have many masks that survive that were worn by people but one in particular is an Anubis mask that survives from the Greco-Roman period at the Hidelsheim museum[see the following link:http://www.cama.org.za/CAMA/countries/egypt/Makers/General/Html/RA1_64.htm]
I believe also there are masks of the deity Bes worn by commoners during festivals. If you have acess to Archaeology magazine archives you can also check out the following articles by her:
Wolinski, Arlene: Egyptian Masks: The Priest and His Role, in: Archaeology 40/1 (1987), 22 - 29.
Posted by osirion (Member # 7644) on :
Problem: There is a certain spirit to Sub-Saharan artwork. From various places in Africa you can tell that the piece art is African in origins.
Its an abstract and spiritual essence of African art. An almost sullen and contorted expression of the struggle of life.
What artwork of Egyptian origin is similar to what is normally referred to as Black African art?
[ 10. February 2006, 05:57 PM: Message edited by: ausar ]
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
^I posted this elsewhere, but it may well be related to what's being said here....
Kemetian art, like any other, speaks for itself. For instance, Kemetian art had certain features that were similar to that of other ancient African culture. You'll see what I mean...
Nursing Woman. From Giza: 5th Dynasty (ca. 2420-2389 B.C.E). Limestone with remains of paint. (courtesy of metmuseum)
Jenne Statue, Terracotta from Niger Valley, Mali (courtesy of african-art.com)
quote:Problem: There is a certain spirit to Sub-Saharan artwork. From various places in Africa you can tell that the piece art is African in origins.
Its an abstract and spiritual essence of African art. An almost sullen and contorted expression of the struggle of life.
What artwork of Egyptian origin is similar to what is normally referred to as Black African art?
Most African art is not done for aesthetic purposes but for psirtual reasons. Also alot of the artwork in ancient Kmt is done for spirtual reasons such as the ancestor shrines found in different households throughout Egypt.
The mother-child figures you see in ancient Egypt of the mother of the pharoah or Isis[Auset] suckling the pharaoah as an infant. These images are similar to the maternity figures in other African countries. See the following as an example:
___Maternity figure from the Akan people of Ghana
___http://www.randafricanart.com/Mother_and_child_images_in_Africa.html{other examples of maternity figures throughout Africa]
ancient Egyptian example:
King Pepi II seated on the lap of his mother Queen Anknes-mery-re
Another similarity I have notice is the fertility dolls used in ancient Egypt known as the paddle doll is also used by the Ashanti as a fertility doll. Some scholars also believe the modern day corn aruseh[bridge of corn] amongst the fellahin is the same exact paddle doll.
The Akuba doll is a fertility image used by the Ashanti tribe. Dolls in this image are carried by pregnant women to protect their unborn babies.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: It is a shame, but back when I was a kid, I remember seeing a lot of National Geographic shows about Africa that I can NOW say showed clear links between Egypt and Africa. There are other pieces of information I have found in papers, magazines and other places that also show how Africa is the mother of Egyptian civilization. Things I hav noticed:
1) Tribes that stage elaborate ceremonies with boats on rivers celebrating kings, the gods or both (with similar styles to AE boats). (I saw this at a African festival about 15 years ago)
2) Tribes where the people wear loin cloths and other clothing very similar to AE depictions. (Various national geographic tv spots)
3) Tribes with hairstyles very similar to AE hairstyles. (same as above)
4) Priests as far south as South Africa who wear garb EXACTLY like the priests in AE art (animal skins, scepters, feathers, etc). (news articles)
5) Cultures that feature gold as a significant part of their cermonies and culture. (magazines, etc)
6) The use of masks in ceremonies to reperesent gods and animal spirits. (same as above)
7) Tribes that use totems and standards to represent various dieties and symbols of kingship. (same)
8) The wearing of flat broad necklaces around the neck, quite similar in style those in AE. (same)
9) All manner of headresses similar to those from AE. (same)
Unfortunately it is hard to put all this into a comprehensive set of definative references, but my suspicion is that anthropologists and others who have studied Africa have known these things ALL ALONG, but keep it SEPARATE from Egyptian history/culture on purpose.
Doug, a list of similarities between Egypt and the rest of Africa has been created, duplicated, and edited here in this forum dozens of times!
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by ausar: Most African art is not done for aesthetic purposes but for psirtual reasons. Also alot of the artwork in ancient Kmt is done for spirtual reasons such as the ancestor shrines found in different households throughout Egypt.
The mother-child figures you see in ancient Egypt of the mother of the pharoah or Isis[Auset] suckling the pharaoah as an infant. These images are similar to the maternity figures in other African countries. See the following as an example:
___Maternity figure from the Akan people of Ghana
___http://www.randafricanart.com/Mother_and_child_images_in_Africa.html{other examples of maternity figures throughout Africa]
ancient Egyptian example:
King Pepi II seated on the lap of his mother Queen Anknes-mery-re
Another similarity I have notice is the fertility dolls used in ancient Egypt known as the paddle doll is also used by the Ashanti as a fertility doll. Some scholars also believe the modern day corn aruseh[bridge of corn] amongst the fellahin is the same exact paddle doll.
The Akuba doll is a fertility image used by the Ashanti tribe. Dolls in this image are carried by pregnant women to protect their unborn babies.
^^Correct. I should also say a great source for comparing fertility dolls would be from Diops book, African Origin of Civilization.
Diop uses dolls from his own people--the Wolof, and I must say the similarities between them and Egyptian dolls are striking! Especially, the paddle dolls and the dolls with braids. According to Diop, these dolls were accessories of girls used to promote fertility, and judging by the similarity in appearance, I'd say Egyptian dolls were used the same way!
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by Supercar:
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: I believe that the only difference between Egypt and the rest of Africa is that they built in stone and left images of their religious practices and texts for us to study.
What about the Great Zimbabwe, the stone walls of Jenne Jeno, the megaliths of the Sahara, the artistic impressions left by the Nok? I suppose I could go on with other examples. To understand the history of Africans, the peopling of the continent is a must know, not to mention linguistic reconstructions, and chronology of cultural processes such as those of economy or subsistence. The key to avoid making incorrect observations about Africans, is to thoroughly research Africa.
Ok, if you want to be TECHNICAL, unlike MOST African cultures, the Egyptians built in stone and left lasting images of their religious ceremonies and processions for us to observe. Even though there were OTHER cultures in Africa that built in stone, NONE other than Egypt, carved images into stone of daily scenes of life and worship. MOST African cultures DID NOT build in stone regardless. Or do you have evidence to the contrary? Please, come off your grandstand or whatever it is trying to correct me over such a SMALL issue. If it is that siginificant show me more than a HANDFUL of cultures in ancient Africa that built in stone like the Egyptians...
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti:
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: It is a shame, but back when I was a kid, I remember seeing a lot of National Geographic shows about Africa that I can NOW say showed clear links between Egypt and Africa. There are other pieces of information I have found in papers, magazines and other places that also show how Africa is the mother of Egyptian civilization. Things I hav noticed:
1) Tribes that stage elaborate ceremonies with boats on rivers celebrating kings, the gods or both (with similar styles to AE boats). (I saw this at a African festival about 15 years ago)
2) Tribes where the people wear loin cloths and other clothing very similar to AE depictions. (Various national geographic tv spots)
3) Tribes with hairstyles very similar to AE hairstyles. (same as above)
4) Priests as far south as South Africa who wear garb EXACTLY like the priests in AE art (animal skins, scepters, feathers, etc). (news articles)
5) Cultures that feature gold as a significant part of their cermonies and culture. (magazines, etc)
6) The use of masks in ceremonies to reperesent gods and animal spirits. (same as above)
7) Tribes that use totems and standards to represent various dieties and symbols of kingship. (same)
8) The wearing of flat broad necklaces around the neck, quite similar in style those in AE. (same)
9) All manner of headresses similar to those from AE. (same)
Unfortunately it is hard to put all this into a comprehensive set of definative references, but my suspicion is that anthropologists and others who have studied Africa have known these things ALL ALONG, but keep it SEPARATE from Egyptian history/culture on purpose.
Doug, a list of similarities between Egypt and the rest of Africa has been created, duplicated, and edited here in this forum dozens of times!
Why dont you direct that at the thread starter? Or is there something I am missing?
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M:
quote:Originally posted by Supercar:
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: I believe that the only difference between Egypt and the rest of Africa is that they built in stone and left images of their religious practices and texts for us to study.
What about the Great Zimbabwe, the stone walls of Jenne Jeno, the megaliths of the Sahara, the artistic impressions left by the Nok? I suppose I could go on with other examples. To understand the history of Africans, the peopling of the continent is a must know, not to mention linguistic reconstructions, and chronology of cultural processes such as those of economy or subsistence. The key to avoid making incorrect observations about Africans, is to thoroughly research Africa. [/qb]
Ok, if you want to be TECHNICAL, unlike MOST African cultures, the Egyptians built in stone and left lasting images of their religious ceremonies and processions for us to observe. Even though there were OTHER cultures in Africa that built in stone, NONE other than Egypt, carved images into stone of daily scenes of life and worship. MOST African cultures DID NOT build in stone regardless. Or do you have evidence to the contrary? Please, come off your grandstand or whatever it is trying to correct me over such a SMALL issue. If it is that siginificant show me more than a HANDFUL of cultures in ancient Africa that built in stone like the Egyptians...
Why not come off your grandstone and READ. I just provided you examples, and yet, you still don't get it. Do I have to spoon-feed you everything?
Ps - I suggest you browse through the Nile Valley forum, to actually learn something about African cultures!
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: Why dont you direct that at the thread starter? Or is there something I am missing?
Sorry, but I did not mean for my response to you to sound negative. I am just stating that three to four threads have been made already on the subject. If Ausar wants to bring it up again fine, he's the moderator anyway. If it will drive home the point how very African Egypt is.
I've said this before and I'll say it again: on top of every African aspect I know of in Egyptian culture, I learn of another one every day!! Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by Supercar:
quote:Originally posted by Doug M:
quote:Originally posted by Supercar:
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: I believe that the only difference between Egypt and the rest of Africa is that they built in stone and left images of their religious practices and texts for us to study.
What about the Great Zimbabwe, the stone walls of Jenne Jeno, the megaliths of the Sahara, the artistic impressions left by the Nok? I suppose I could go on with other examples. To understand the history of Africans, the peopling of the continent is a must know, not to mention linguistic reconstructions, and chronology of cultural processes such as those of economy or subsistence. The key to avoid making incorrect observations about Africans, is to thoroughly research Africa.
Ok, if you want to be TECHNICAL, unlike MOST African cultures, the Egyptians built in stone and left lasting images of their religious ceremonies and processions for us to observe. Even though there were OTHER cultures in Africa that built in stone, NONE other than Egypt, carved images into stone of daily scenes of life and worship. MOST African cultures DID NOT build in stone regardless. Or do you have evidence to the contrary? Please, come off your grandstand or whatever it is trying to correct me over such a SMALL issue. If it is that siginificant show me more than a HANDFUL of cultures in ancient Africa that built in stone like the Egyptians...
Why not come off your grandstone and READ. I just provided you examples, and yet, you still don't get it. Do I have to spoon-feed you everything?
Ps - I suggest you browse through the Nile Valley forum, to actually learn something about African cultures! [/QB]
Browse the Nile Valley for what? It isn't that I did not KNOW that there were other cultures that built in stone, including those of Meroe, but that MOST African cultures DID NOT and therefore whatever evidence we could gather about them is proably decayed and gone. My point still stands unless you can PROVE otherwise. You are trying to act as if I was omitting a HUGE number of cultures that built in stone in Africa. The number of cultures that built in stone in Africa is relatively small versus those that did not. And of the ones that did, only Egypt and Meroe/Kush left inscriptions carved into the stone that would last thousands of years and allow us to see what their religious ceremonies and other aspects of daily life looked like. To me Meroe is an extension of Egyptian culture (or vice versa), so outside of those, WHICH culture in Africa left stone monuments with detailed carvings of daily life and culture on the scale of Egypt?
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: It isn't that I did not KNOW that there were other cultures that built in stone, including those of Meroe, but that MOST African cultures DID NOT and therefore whatever evidence we could gather about them is proably decayed and gone. My point still stands unless you can PROVE otherwise.
Tell us what "Most" African cultures you actually know about? Your point has been pointless; you've said nothing of significance...That's the point!
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
OK maybe I am missing something then..... please fill me in:
To me Meroe is an extension of Egyptian culture (or vice versa), so outside of those, WHICH culture in Africa left stone monuments with detailed carvings of daily life and culture on the scale of Egypt?
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
The point is that what I said was RIGHT unless you can SHOW me where I am wrong, boy I hope you are right, since I want to see other African cultures that built in stone and left DETAILED inscriptions and carvings of everyday life and activities like Egypt.......... I actually HOPE you are right. Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: The point is that what I said was RIGHT unless you can SHOW me where I am wrong, boy I hope you are right, since I want to see other African cultures that built in stone and left DETAILED inscriptions and carvings of everyday life and activities like Egypt.......... I actually HOPE you are right.
LOL. Right about what? The bullsh*t that no other African culture has built in stones, or left symbols of religion and culture via artwork? I would hope even you would be smart enough at this point, to know just how absurd you are looking, at this very moment! Why not start with a basic list, posted elsewhere, like the following, for STARTERS!
Six of those on that list, are actually West African. There were of course, other west African kingdoms not mentioned on that list. But, there is a great deal to learn about these kingdoms alone, before one salivates for more.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: OK maybe I am missing something then..... please fill me in:
To the contrary, it would seem that the rest of us are missing something about what you seem to know. You act as though you know much about African cultures. Please tell us about the "Most African" cultures you know about, so as to reach the very questionable and broad statements you've made about these "Most" African cultures.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
No I act as if I made a valid point and you are wasting my time by not answering the question I posed. If you KNOW SO MUCH then answer it! Period. IF not then...........
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: No I act as if I made a valid point and you are wasting my time by not answering the question I posed. If you KNOW SO MUCH then answer it! Period. IF not then...........
My friend, the stalling is on your end. Why don't we start our discussion from the "Most African" cultures you know about, so we can determine how much you really know, and why you came to the conclusions you did. I was even prepared to help you, by providing you with that very basic list!
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
No, how about this thread is for SHARING information about how Egypt is like other African cultures. Whether I know a lot or a little is irrelevant to the point of posting here. Therefore, if you HAVE it share it. Meaning if the word MOST is wrong, then PROVE it, plain and simple. I am not ABOVE correction, but you arent doing anything but going in circles. YOU made a point of CORRECTING me, I disagree, but hey SHOW me where I am wrong....
FYI:
quote: most (mōst) pronunciation adj. Superlative of many., much.
1. 1. Greatest in number: won the most votes. 2. Greatest in amount, extent, or degree: has the most compassion. 2. In the greatest number of instances: Most fish have fins.
n.
Just in case you were confused about it. Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: No, how about this thread is for SHARING information about how Egypt is like other African cultures. Whether I know a lot or a little is irrelevant to the point of posting here. Therefore, if you HAVE it share it. Meaning if the word MOST is wrong, then PROVE it, plain and simple. I am not ABOVE correction, but you arent doing anything but going in circles. YOU made a point of CORRECTING me, I disagree, but hey SHOW me where I am wrong....
FYI:
quote: most (mōst) pronunciation adj. Superlative of many., much.
1. 1. Greatest in number: won the most votes. 2. Greatest in amount, extent, or degree: has the most compassion. 2. In the greatest number of instances: Most fish have fins.
n.
Just in case you were confused about it.
Jibberish, and more stalling tactics! You said "Most" African cultures, and so, if we are to reach a meaningful conclusion of this discussion, we have to know what those "Most" cultures are, that you know so well, so as to reach the strange conclusion you did. We don't know what is in your mind, and so, it is important for you to demonstrate to us which specific African cultures the extent of your knowledge has allowed you to reach such an interesting, but indeed questionable conclusion about them! We are waiting. Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
^^Knock, knock, knock, Doug! Hello; are you in there? LOL. We aren't getting any younger!
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
YOU said I was wrong so prove it. Please stop wasting thread space over nonsense.
But lets break it down:
lets say A represents all the cultures in Africa during the Egyptian dynastic period that built in stone. Likewise, lets make B represent all cultures in Africa during the Egyptian dynastic period that did not build in stone.
I said most cultures in Africa at the time did not build in stone, meaning A > B. You questioned by use of the term most, meaning you believe that B > A.
Find B and A where B > A.
Do you understand?
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: YOU said I was wrong so prove it. Please stop wasting thread space over nonsense.
But lets break it down:
lets say A represents all the cultures in Africa during the Egyptian dynastic period that built in stone. Likewise, lets make B represent all cultures in Africa during the Egyptian dynastic period that did not build in stone.
I said most cultures in Africa at the time did not build in stone, meaning A > B. You questioned by use of the term most, meaning you believe that B > A.
Find B and A where B > A.
Do you understand?
See, how can I know or prove you are wrong, if you don't specify what it is you are talking about? Remember, pseudo-scholars hide behind ambiguities for a reason! I said your claims are highly questionable, and I stand by that claim. What specifically, were those "Most African cultures" you were referring to? You alone know what it is that you had in mind, what you consider "Most African cultures"? We don't know that; you have to demonstrate it via words, so we can start our discussion with those specifics. Tell us about these specific cultures, that made you jump into such a broad conclusion about them. Let's not break things down to clowning games, as you put forth above. Lets deal with SPECIFICS, and that starts with what you call "MOST AFRICAN CULTURES"!
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
Earlier I wrote:
quote:Originally posted by Supercar: My friend, the stalling is on your end. Why don't we start our discussion from the "Most African" cultures you know about, so we can determine how much you really know, and why you came to the conclusions you did. I was even prepared to help you, by providing you with that very basic list!
I rest my case! Case in point; we still don't have the specifics or even the names of the "MOST African Cultures" that Doug casually tossed around, not expecting to be questioned on his strange claims. If Doug knew or had a clue about what it is he's talking about, I wouldn't have needed to repeat my request on this; it would have been swiftly provided, but we all know what the case is, don't we!
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
Most African cultures means MOST cultures IN Africa. I mean AFRICAN CULTURES or dont you understand what African cultures are?
Lets break it down again:
African Cultures means cultures inhabiting the continent of Africa and formed by people native to the continent of Africa.
Most African cultures did not build in stone like the Egyptians did. PERIOD.
Thats it that is all and there is nothing else to say. UNLESS you can prove me wrong. I dont have to say ANYTHING ELSE. I already said it. You are clowning YOURSELF by trying to make something SO SIMPLE into something complex. No matter if I can name ALL of the cultures in Africa at the time of dynastic Egypt, my point would still be the same. It is not an issue of NAMING it is an issue of COUNTING. MATH plain and simple, no matter what YOU want to make it into. The issue is one of COUNTING not naming, the ONLY way I could be wrong is if the NUMBER of African cultures that BUILT in STONE like the Egyptians is GREATER than the NUMBER of African cultures that did NOT build in stone, no matter WHAT the names of the individual cultures are. THAT is logic pure and simple. If I said COUNT how many cows are in the pasture, would I CARE if you came back and told me the NAME of each COW? NO! If you were SERIOUS and not just being argumentative just to be argumentative YOU would just FLATLY say that there were MORE African cultures that built in stone than weren't. I would still disagree, but seeing as how the ones you named count to less than 10, I dont see the need to name any since it is obvious that there WERE more than 10 cultures in Africa that did NOT build in stone at that time.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: Most African cultures means MOST cultures IN Africa.
...in which case, you shouldn't have any problem naming them; why are you stalling?
quote:Doug M: I mean AFRICAN CULTURES or dont you understand what African cultures are?
I know what Africa is, and what 'culture' is. Do you? Do you know what African cultures you had in mind, or do you not know what cultures you had in mind? Did you have any in mind to begin with?
quote:Doug M: Lets break it down again:
African Cultures means cultures inhabiting the continent of Africa and formed by people native to the continent of Africa.
Most African cultures did not build in stone like the Egyptians did. PERIOD.
Will you cut the clowning, and address the specifics asked of you!
quote:Doug M: Thats it that is all and there is nothing else to say.
That is precisely what I guessed: hotair; don't expect any forthcoming substantiation!
quote:Doug M: UNLESS you can prove me wrong. I dont have to say ANYTHING ELSE.
What is wrong with you; I mean, upstairs? How can I prove anything, when we don't even know what "Most African Cultures" you are referring to? In how many ways can I ask this question in English?
quote:Doug M: I already said it.
Nothing?! You got that right!
quote:Doug M: You are clowning YOURSELF by trying to make something SO SIMPLE into something complex.
I will have to agree that I descending myself low to your level, by entertaining your sub-intellectual method of discourse here. If it were as "SIMPLE" as you say, where are the specifics of those "MOST African cultures" that has been asked of you, many threads ago now? Apparently, it isn't that "simple" after all, huh!
quote:Doug M: No matter if I can name ALL of the cultures in Africa at the time of dynastic Egypt, my point would still be the same. It is not an issue of NAMING it is an issue of COUNTING. MATH plain and simple, no matter what YOU want to make it into.
So, are you now 'upgrading' your numbers to include "ALL" African cultures, except Egypt? How many African cultures would that be; are you sure you can even count those, as plainly and simply as you say; I don't know...after the way you handled my earlier request to provide us with the specifics of those "Most African cultures" you mentioned, if you can handle math "plain and simple"! But don't let me interrupt your stalling games. Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
No, you are obviously ignorant of Africa and its cultures if you do not consider Egypt part of Africa. Egypt is a child of Africa and of this there is no doubt. Africa has had hundreds of cultures, probably too many to count. Honestly, the issue to me here is how you define a culture. For example you mention the Great Zimbabwe. Do you mean to tell me that there were NO OTHER cultures in that area except that ONE? Honestly, you are being quite biased in trying to imply that the ONLY cultures that existed in Africa were those that built in stone. It is obvious that your logic skills are either lacking or YOU REALLY HAVE NO CONCEPT OF WHAT I MEAN. You want to seem like you are intelligent and analytical but you miss the OBVIOUS and then try to phsycho analyze all those who dont agree with you.
I dont agree with you. Period. Your ad infinitum attempts to question my intelligence are nothing more than the acts of someone desparate to avoid the issue. Like I said, there is ONLY one solution to this argument. YOU prove that there were MORE cultures in Africa that built in stone than did not build in stone. Anything else is just a bunch of TALK on your part, no matter HOW much you try and sound intelligent.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: No, you are obviously ignorant of Africa and its cultures if you do not consider Egypt part of Africa.
Okay, I'm ignorant of Africa and its cultures. It makes matters even more interesting, because now I am sure you'll enlighten me:
For the millionth time, which "Most African cultures" were referring to, when you mentioned those words. It is generally understood that, if someone makes that claim, that at least he/she would have had an idea of what it is he/she had in mind. Did you know what you had in mind or were you ignorant of what it was, you were supposed to have in mind?
quote:Doug M: Egypt is a child of Africa and of this there is no doubt. Africa has had hundreds of cultures, probably too many to count.
Are you telling me, that you said "Most African cultures", and yet, you didn't even have an idea as to what those "Most African cultures" were? LOL.
quote:Doug M: Honestly, the issue to me here is how you define a culture. For example you mention the Great Zimbabwe. Do you mean to tell me that there were NO OTHER cultures in that area except that ONE?
I don't know, I am ignorant of African cultures, as you said; You tell me, if there was any besides the Great Zimbabwe in the region!
quote:Doug M: Honestly, you are being quite biased in trying to imply that the ONLY cultures that existed in Africa were those that built in stone. It is obvious that your logic skills are either lacking or YOU REALLY HAVE NO CONCEPT OF WHAT I MEAN.
Good; now you do us a favor, and demonstrate to us that YOU have a concept of what you were talking about, when you said "Most African cultures". What are these "Most African cultures" you are referring to; which cultures did you have in mind when you said that, or are these bogus and nameless cultures that you tossed around, to make a bogus claim?
quote:Doug M: you want to seem like you are intelligent and analytical but you miss the OBVIOUS and then try to phsycho analyze all those who dont agree with you.
My friend, it doesn't exactly take a genius to see that your claims were questionable, to say the least.
quote:Doug M: I dont agree with you. Period.
What is there to agree or disagree with, when we have yet to establish that you know what you were talking about. But no matter, we will get to the bottom of that, hopefully tonight!
quote:Doug M: Your ad infinitum attempts to question my intelligence are nothing more than the acts of someone desparate to avoid the issue.
Avoid what issue? See, that's what I'm hoping we will get to the bottom of!
quote:Doug M: Like I said, there is ONLY one solution to this argument. YOU prove that there were MORE cultures in Africa that built in stone than did not build in stone.
Why do I need to prove this?...I mean, I'm supposed to be ignorant of Africa and its cultures, and you are supposed to be the most brightened individual when it comes to "Most African cultures"! But let me see: so that you won't have to name those "Most African cultures" that you mentioned, so as to give us a starting point for the discussion; in other words, let you off the hook? So we won't have to find out whether you have a clue of what you were saying?
quote:Doug M: Anything else is just a bunch of TALK on your part, no matter HOW much you try and sound intelligent.
Suggestion: Try even harder at trying to sound "intelligent". At this point; you haven't been doing so well.
Which is worse? Someone who is ignorant of something that he/she has to learn more about, or someone who is ignorant of what goes on in his/her own mind, i.e, what they are supposed to be thinking about. I'll give you props though, for projecting yourself in the direction of the latter.
Posted by osirion (Member # 7644) on :
quote:Originally posted by ausar: [
quote:Problem: There is a certain spirit to Sub-Saharan artwork. From various places in Africa you can tell that the piece art is African in origins.
Its an abstract and spiritual essence of African art. An almost sullen and contorted expression of the struggle of life.
What artwork of Egyptian origin is similar to what is normally referred to as Black African art?
Most African art is not done for aesthetic purposes but for psirtual reasons. Also alot of the artwork in ancient Kmt is done for spirtual reasons such as the ancestor shrines found in different households throughout Egypt.
The mother-child figures you see in ancient Egypt of the mother of the pharoah or Isis[Auset] suckling the pharaoah as an infant. These images are similar to the maternity figures in other African countries. See the following as an example:
___Maternity figure from the Akan people of Ghana
___http://www.randafricanart.com/Mother_and_child_images_in_Africa.html{other examples of maternity figures throughout Africa]
ancient Egyptian example:
King Pepi II seated on the lap of his mother Queen Anknes-mery-re
Another similarity I have notice is the fertility dolls used in ancient Egypt known as the paddle doll is also used by the Ashanti as a fertility doll. Some scholars also believe the modern day corn aruseh[bridge of corn] amongst the fellahin is the same exact paddle doll.
The Akuba doll is a fertility image used by the Ashanti tribe. Dolls in this image are carried by pregnant women to protect their unborn babies.
We might be able to show that, culturally speaking, AE lifestyle was very similar to other African people and the art work of these people nicely depicts this. However, the art style is not at all the same. What is often considered Black African art, often has similar styles of spiritualness and abstraction. Even when we find naturalism in Sub-Saharan art, there are clear cultural differences tht are depicted such as scarification in Ife art:
We may see that the way of life of the AE were similar to Sub-Saharan Africans but I don't see the art style similarities. It seems to me that the style is an import from Eurasia.
Posted by osirion (Member # 7644) on :
This artifact has some Egyptian like qualities especially in terms of the regalia.
By enlarge though, I just don't see the spiritual sytlism in AE art that most of traditionally considered Black African art contains.
Posted by ausar (Member # 1797) on :
Osirion, I already showed how ancient Egyptian artwork was similar in both the fertility figures and maternity figures. None of the following is found in Eur-asian cultures Matter of fact, it was actually the ancient Egyptians who influenced the Eur-asians with the Kuros statue figures.
Most of ancient Egyptian artwork in the various tombs are meant to be spirtual doubles of the person. It was believed that the ka of the deceased could enter the sculpture.
Everything in ancient Egyptian culture from the artwork down even the architecture had a spirtual meaning.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
As I said, I dont HAVE to in order to say what I said. It is YOU who keeps trying to force this into a discussion of MY knowledge of African culture. You keep going on about this or that, as if it makes a difference. I know what I said and I stand behind it. YOU prove YOUR point. YOU profess to BE SO KNOWLEDGABLE, so PROVE IT.
I will say for the 50000th time.
MOST ancient African cultures STILL did not build in stone like Ancient Egypt. I dont CARE if you dont like it, like me or like that I said it. It is TRUE and UNTIL you can prove otherwise STILL stands. What does linguistics have to do with it? If they didnt build in stone, they didnt build in stone. Language is not stone building. Same with chronology, if there is no stone there is no stone. Unless we find MORE stone ruins from OTHER ancient African kingdoms than Zimbabwe, Meroe, Egypt, Carthage, Nabta Playa and maybe a few others. MY point is still true. Unless you dont believe any OTHER cultures existed in Africa, EXCEPT those that built in stone. Since of course the ONLY cultures YOU want to recognize in Africa, are those that built in stone.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
I've posted this before, and I'll post again, because as we've seen, some folks have the tendency to blabber about things which they seem to exhibit little comprehension of. When I said earlier that, "To understand the history of Africans, the peopling of the continent is a must know, not to mention linguistic reconstructions, and chronology of cultural processes such as those of economy or subsistence. The key to avoid making incorrect observations about Africans, is to thoroughly research Africa.", I knew what I was doing.
Doug talks of African cultures at "the time of Dynastic Egypt", and yet provides no specific chronology, no specific place, or specific culture, just the mere blabber of nameless cultures, needless to say a logical fallacy, under the umbrella of "Most African cultures". Hence, it is not surprising that the guy wasn't immediately able to tell us, specifically which cultures he had in mind, when spewing out those words. To understand why one cannot simply talk about African cultures without any consideration to the peopling of Africa, and the other points I highlighted above, is because one needs to know the settling patterns of humans throughout the various timeframes, and chronology of such events in association with cultural development.
"Since then some disillusion has set in. First, in spite of all the declarations of principle, most historians are simply not interested in the results of archeology, and for the most part they remain unaware of what is going on in their sister discipline. Perhaps the last discover that truly made an impact on them was the excavation in 1977 of Jenne-Jeno, because the locality became a city well ***before*** any Muslim North African influences were felt in West Africa." - HISTORIANS, ARE ARCHEOLOGISTS YOUR SIBLINGS? By Jan Vansina; University of Wisconsin-Madison
From an earlier discussion, the following was presented.
quote:Heru:
I've read a little about the Nok and Kintampo cultures. I don't know if these are the earliest signs of "civilization" in W. Africa but they are the oldest I've heard of. How far do these cultures go back? I'm not sure myself but I think it's safe to surmise that they're not nearly as old as the Pre-Dynastic cultures of Upper and Lower Egypt.
The beginnings of the Nok culture is still obscure, and so, any dating available is pure speculation. The dates available in various writings are based on carbon dating of artifacts so far found. As you know, material that perish and cannot be carbon dated, are lost forever in time. Sculptures and iron-smelting furnaces have been located in the location where the Nok culture was supposed to have been based, where modern Nigeria now lies.
Anyway, based on what has been found so far, this may be a reasonable but very brief chronology of what was going on in the Western regions of the continent.
CHRONOLOGY OF ANCIENT WEST AFRICA
After 12,000 BCE: Beginning of a wetter phase in Africa north of the equator. Populations ancestral to most West Africans make up the foragers and hunters of these lands.
By about 8,000 BCE: Great lakes formed in Niger Bend, Lake Chad and Upper Nile regions.
Spread of 'African aquatic culture' through this 'great lakes' region.
Sedentary fishing communities using pottery and microlithic tools become established long the shores of lakes and rivers.
Saharan region enjoys savanna-type climate. Favorable conditions lead to population growth.
9,000 to 6,000 BCE: Saharan region in its wettest phases.
By 6,000 BCE: Evidence of domesticated 'humpless' cattle in the Saharan region. Also seed-cropping (or harvesting) of grains.
6,000-2,500 BCE: Spread of predominantly cattle-raising peoples throughout the Sahara. Probably ancestral to modern-day Berber groups.
3,000-1,000 BCE: Farming spreads through the former fishing belt of the tropical woodland savannas and forest margins of West Africa. This Guinea Neolithic era saw the domestication of millets, rice, sorghum, yams, and palm trees among others.
After 2,500 BCE: Saharan region enters a period of rapid desertification, driving people and larger game animals to seek better watered lands to the north and south for habitation. Neolithic settlements spread along the Saharan borderlands and near rivers and lakes in the West.
1,200-700 BCE: Excavations at Dar Tichitt (modern Mauritania) reveal progression from large, un-walled lakeside villages to smaller walled hilltop villages in response to drier climate and increasing pressure from nomads.
After 2,000 BCE: Favorable climatic conditions and developing technology and socio-cultural systems lead to population growth in the Niger valleys. Neolithic farming spreading south and east from the area of modern-day Cameroon. Probably associated with speakers of proto-Bantu languages.
After 500 BCE: Advent of iron-smelting and iron use in West Africa. Height of the civilization known as Nok, which produced art work ancestral to that of later Yoruba and lgbo peoples.
WEST AFRICA: C. 800 BCE TO 1591 AD/CE
By 800 BCE Neolithic agricultural peoples inhabit the best lands of the savanna and forest margins. Regional trade networks based on the exchange of salt, fish, pottery, and other regional specialties developing. Small, clan-based villages typical of agricultural areas. Nomads dominate in the drier areas.
-800 to -500 Development of Carthage in the north stimulates exchanges of products across the Sahara Desert, managed by desert Berbers using horses, oxen and chariots. Iron use psreads into the region from the north or east, or both. Larger scale settlements appearing in southern Mauritania. the middle Niger River basin, and the Jos plateau region. These areas correspond respectively to the probable ancestral homes of the modern Soninke (northern Mande); Songhai; and Yoruba peoples.
-500 to -200 Iron use spreads rapidly throughout West Africa, stimulating population growth, trade, and urbanization. Iron-age peoples of Nok (modern Nigeria) produce magnificent terra cotta sculptures stylistically ancestral to later Yoruba and Benin art. Indirect trade continues across increasingly well-marked Saharan trails, still traversed by horse or ox-drawn vehicles.
-800 to +200 Era of Nok civilization. Bantu expansion 'takes off' to the south and east. Earliest towns, such as Jenne, growing up along the Niger on its most northerly stretch.
-100 to +100 Camel use reaches the western Sahara via Berbers living in its southern reaches.
c.100 to 400 CE Camel using Saharan Berber peoples, such as the Taureg and Sanhaja, develop trans-Saharan trade routes, linking the Maghrib and West Africa directly for the first time. Salt, copper, gold, dates, slaves, agricultural produce, manufactured goods and ivory among the goods exchanged. Soninke-led Ghana, Songhai-led Gao grow as middlemen for the expanding commerce. Trade routes also link Nigeria and Lake Chad to North Africa.
400 to 900 Ghana, with its capital at Kumbi Saleh, becomes the first regional "great power." With their control over the southern end of the trans-Saharan trade and the northern end of the gold trade, the Ghana of Wagadu can afford the cavalry necessary to enforce his rule throughout the lands between the Niger and the Senegal Rivers. The trans-Saharan boom stimulates the growth of regional trade in copper, iron and other goods, both agricultural and manufactured.
750 to 1000 Muslim merchants from the North become a major force in trans-Saharan and West African commerce. Islam spreads to Takrur and Ghana. Among the Kanuri of Lake Chad, the Sefawa family founds a dynasty who will rule Kanem for a thousand years. The trans-Saharan trade grows rapidly along with the expansion of the Islamic world. Artists of Igbo Ukwu in southern Nigeria produce fine works in bronze.
ca.1000 Foundation of Ife, the political and spiritual capital of the Yoruba.
1054 to 1070 Almoravid Sanhaja establish control over trans-Saharan routes from the borders of Ghana to Morocco, greatly weakening Ghana.
11th & 12th c. Several Sudannic kings convert to Islam. Commerce in the Sudan gradually comes to be dominated by Muslims, both of local and north African origin.
13th c. Rise of Mali under the great Mande hero, Sundiata Keita. Ghana incorporated into the new great power. From its new capital at Niane on the Niger, Mali develops trade with the developing gold fields of the Akan in modern-day Ghana.
14th c Empire of Mali dominates the Western half of West Africa, controlling the gold and salt trade; promoting Islam; and providing peace and prosperity to its region. Mansa Musa, the best known ruler of Mali, made the pilgrimage to Mecca.
15th c. Mali suffers dynastic difficulties and economic challenges as the gold fields move further south and east. Songhai gains strength. Portuguese merchants begin trading directly with the Akan along the coast of modern Ghana.
16th c. Songhai, with its capital at Gao replaces Mali as the imperial power of West Africa. Islamic learning flourishes with government patronage in the university town of Timbuktu.
Ghana (Wagadu) is usually mentioned as the first Sahelian kingdom. I don't think anyone sincerely knows when Ghana was established as a kingdom though. I've noticed a lot of guessing concerning this. I've also noticed a lot of guessing when it comes to the Nok and Kintampo cultures. Websites discussing W. African history usually don't mention the Nok or Kintampo cultures and jump right into Ghana. It also seems like we don't know much about W. African history before the spread of Islam.
Between the onset of Pharonic Egypt and lets say the New Kingdom (1500 BC?), what were these other Saharans doing?
You are right the beginnings of Ghanaian empire is obscure. Most of the datings various historians go by, are from Arabic sources, with whom the West Africans traded in those times. But the nature of trade between these folks, tells us that West Africans were already mature traders by time of the earliest available Arabic writings, concerning these Arabic encounters with West Africans. Needless to say, the Ghanaian empire predates those early records from Arabic trades, and may well have been a mature kingdom by then. At any rate, evidence from Jenne, tells us more about west Africans in that region. The findings there thus far have shown the emergence of a city in that region and a complex culture involving trade.
Continued …
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
Continued...
quote:
THE INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT OF JENNE-JENO As a result of McIntosh and McIntosh’s precessual archaeological approach to excavating Jenne-Jeno and its hinterland, it has been demonstrated that instead of developing as a result of the trans-Saharan trade, Jenne-Jeno was an indigenous town possessing much earlier origins (Hall 1996: 221).
The earliest occupants of Jenne-Jeno (c. 250 BC - 50 AD) possessed iron and had a subsistence base that was predominantly aquatic, e.g. waterfowl and fish, although bovids are also found that are possible those of the domestic Bos taurus (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 15) Permanent mudbrick architecture is lacking, but there are large numbers Saharan affinity sand-tempered pottery (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 15).
Phase II (40 - 400 AD) has yielded the earliest known example of African rice -domesticated (McIntosh 1981: 15-16). The cultural continuity from Phase I is demonstrated, amongst others, from the continued faunal dominance of aquatic animals and bovids. Here too is the first permanent mudbrick architecture and this, together with the rice and crowded cemeteries, provides a possible association with the increase in settlement size and a likely rise in population (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 16).
It was in late Phase III and early Phase IV (750-1150 AD) that Jenne-Jeno achieved its greatest growth, reaching 33 hectares - a figure to which might be added the adjacent mound of Hambarketolo, connected to Jenne-Jeno via an earthen dike, of 9 hectares - and a population which was ten times greater than that of today (McIntosh &a McIntosh 1981: 16, Hall 1996: 227). The shallower Hambarketolo deposits of 3 metres, suggest a later date for the origin of the city by comparison with and functioning part of Jenne-Jeno at its height (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 16-17). Both Hambarketolo and Jenne-Jeno declined during Phase IV and were abandoned, although the causes are yet unclear (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 17). A possible explanation is that the start of the abandonment occurs in the same period as that reported by al-Sa’di for the conversion of Jenne-Jeno to Islam, in the thirteenth century AD (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 17).
The excavators hypothesise that the new-converted ruler and/or the elite of Jenne-Jeno founded a new Islamic, city (Jenne) on a new unconnected site (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 17). Control of trade belonged to native Muslim merchants and the new city replaced the old as the centre of economic activities, a view reinforced by the surviving historical records (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 17).
To examine the extent of urbanism, it is crucial to look closely at the surrounding countryside in an attempt to identify a system of hierarchical settlements on the premise that the city is a settlement providing specialised functions in relations with those around it (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 17). Of those 42 sites within the 25km survey area reported by the excavators, none had been abandoned before Phase III whilst roughly three-quarters had by the close of Phase IV (c. 1400 AD).
These sites had been occupied for hundreds of years previously (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 18). The surrounding lands of Jenne-Jeno display the greatest site density in the late Phase II and early Phase IV, after which decline is evident (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 18). All the indirect evidence, including the ceramic and feature categories, points towards Jenne-Jeno being the centre of an integrated settlement hierarchy with its hinterland.
Thus the survey results confirm the archaeological evidence from Jenne-Jeno itself - that there was a rapid development during Phase III between 400-900 AD, and that the survey sites hit their greatest density at roughly the same time (late Phase III - early Phase IV) that Jenne-Jeno reached its largest growth extent (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 19). Jenne-Jeno’s decline was part of the general population reorganisation that affected other floodplain settlement sites also in the western Inland Niger Delta, the causes of which are unknown but which preceded the various political disturbances created by the Bambara and Fulani migrations (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 19).
The early expansion of Jenne-Jeno in the first centuries of the first millennium was likely due to the local and regional Inland Delta and adjacent area trade networks developing. Its position at the boundary of the two ecology zones of the dry savanna and the Sahel, together with the lack of stone and iron ore on its alluvial plain, gave the settlement great opportunities of involvement as inter-regional trade expanded (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 19).
The Inland Niger Delta possess no iron ore right for smelting, and so the slag at Jenne-Jeno and other sites within the survey area mentioned above must have been imported either in the form of iron or bloomery iron that had remnants of slag attached to it (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 19). Because of weight and easier and cheaper transport, the latter option is probably the correct one. The excavators believe that the source of the iron ore is Benedougou and that the trade stretches back close to Jenne-Jeno’s origins (McIntosh & McIntosh 1981: 19, 20).
THE INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT OF GHANA Although the Ghana Empire is the earliest historically documented kingdom in the West African Sahel, it is in fact the second complex political system that arose in this area (Munson 1980: 457). The historical records of Ghana come from Arab sources dating between 800 and 1650 AD, but Ghana had been in existence for long before then and was centred in the present-day Sahal region of south-eastern Mauritania and western Mali. (Munson 1980: 457) - courtesy of Mikey Brass
Oral history is sometimes as good as written history. If we were to throw out oral history then we would have to throw out the Illid and the Odyssey[sp] because most of these were orally composed.
Both the Tarikh Al Sudan and Tarikh Al Fattah were written at later dates in Timbuktu but indicate that Ghana was very ancient and well established before the Almoravids ever came in 1060.
What we have in archaeological proof that kingdoms like Ghana came from earlier archaeological sites like Dar Tchitt. From Dar Tchitt we find walled cities much like found in Ghana.
You can write better history with a pick and a shovel in archaeology than sometimes with written history.
Of course you are correct.
“...Therefore meaningful reconstructions can only be undertaken when enough sites have been excavated and when the diversity of artifacts and features recovered is sufficient to make such a surprise very unlikely. The second condition is as important as the first. In the case of Zambia, for instance, there are plenty of excavated sites, but the diversity of artefacts and features recovered is still too narrow to allow for a satisfactory reconstruction.
As to complementary strength, an excellent illustration of this is the case of Daboya, a late urban site in Ghana. Daboya was already an old and sizeable settlement when it became part of the Gonja kingdom before 1600. In the later eighteenth century Gonja itself was overrun by Asante, to which it became tributary. Much of the known information about the kingdom stems from the Kitab Ghunja, compiled ca. 1751. Yet excavations at Gonja showed that both the Gonja and the Asante conquests remain invisible on the site.144 One might conclude from this that the "resolution" of archeological data is not good enough to capture even momentous political events. Be that as it may, what one should conclude is that even these momentous political events left little mark on the daily lives and living standards of the inhabitants of Daboya. In other words, the successive political upheavals were of little moment to the whole of the population. Hitherto historians had not appreciated how much the Kitab Ghunja had misrepresented the past by elevating the experience of a small political and religious minority to the level of a universal upheaval. The archeological record in this case documents the fate of ordinary people and thereby substantially alters the accepted reconstruction.
Other excavations of historically well-documented sites bring similar lessons relating to the majority of the population by showing, for instance, to what degree and in what ways they were affected by European imports or the nearby presence of European settlements or by political upheavals.145 One lesson of archeology then is the danger of overstressing the importance of single events, usually political upheavals, and the need to focus more on daily life, daily routines, and the standards of living which affect the majority of the population--in short, on all those factors which are taken as known by most written or oral accounts and yet give substance and meaning to the events described in such accounts.” - HISTORIANS, ARE ARCHEOLOGISTS YOUR SIBLINGS? By Jan Vansina; University of Wisconsin-Madison
continued...
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
Continued from above...
Aksum...
Lalibela...
Great Zimbabwe...
Continued...
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
The Great Zimbabwe continued...
Even after the notes, and these mere examples, the guy STILL WON'T GET THE MESSAGE!
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
First off, I NEVER said that there were NO other cultures in Africa that built in stone. You are getting me ALL WRONG. Kudos for the photos, I appreciate posts, since they are VERY informative. Most of the cultures you posted I ALREADY know about, except for the Swahili ones or the ones of the Nok. The POINT was that you were quibbling over every word I said and MISUNDERSTANDING the WHOLE point. NONE of those other ruins has any CARVINGS of DAILY LIFE AND CEREMONIES. Therefore, most of what we know about their dress, daily life and ceremonial customs comes from artifacts that are prone to DECAY, moreso than the IMAGES found on Egyptian structures.
So, bottom line, do you feel that these cultures that built in stone represent MOST cultures in Africa. I think not. As a matter of fact, I can say with ALL certainty that MOST cultures in the word, in ancient times, DID NOT BUILD IN STONE. But of course, you think Africa is DIFFERENT..... And NO I dont HAVE to list all ancient cultures of the world to KNOW this. Look at it this way, I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures.
But back to the thread and the topic.
None of these structures ALONE allow us to glimpse daily life and activity the way you see in Egypt, except for the monuments of Aksum and Meroe, which are RELATED to Egypt anyway.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
You want to learn about culture of the examples provided, you'll have to dig more, and do research; but wait a minute, you already know about these cultures! And yeap, I am still waiting on the specifics of those "Most African cultures" that didn't build anything in stone, much less leaving anything behind on their culture [glimps of what the artist saw as part of life in their society]! Tell us about these "Most African cultures", and what you know about their daily life and activity. I really could care less about what you think per se, but more to the point of how you intend to corroborate your questionable claims. That is why I need to know the specifics of what it is you are talking about. The perceptive will have already noticed that examples of these [pertaining to glimps of life in the said African society] have been posted here; it of course, goes without saying, I don't expect you to be observant enough to know what is being talked about.
quote:Doug M: None of these structures ALONE allow us to glimpse daily life and activity the way you see in Egypt, except for the monuments of Aksum and Meroe, which are RELATED to Egypt anyway.
Which Aksumite monument(s) are you referring to, and how is/are Aksumite monument(s) related to Egypt "anyway"?
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote: You want to learn about culture of the examples provided, you'll have to dig more, and do research; but wait a minute, you already know about these cultures!
Non Sequitir. I NEVER said I know everything about all cultures in Africa. YOU said that. And I get the impression that YOU think you do and it makes your head hurt to see someone else post something, which threatens your position as CHIEF KNOW IT ALL OF AFRICA Trust me I am much more humble than that. I DO know enough to know that MOST did not build in stone, especially before and during the time of the Dynastic period in Egypt. MY point still stands, unless you can prove otherwise. If you need to figure out what MOST means, then you NEED to stop asking me and CONSULT a dictionary, o wise one of Africa.
quote: And yeap, I am still waiting on the specifics of those "Most African cultures" that didn't build anything in stone, much less leaving anything behind on their culture [glimps of what the artist saw as part of life in their society]! Tell us about these "Most African cultures", and what you know about their daily life and activity.
NONE of the images you posted show scenes of daily life CARVED in stone like the Egyptians. If so, please point it out. I ONLY was comparing the DURABILITY of images carved in stone versus the NON DURABILITY of the ITEMS depicted. But, OF COURSE, now I have to show you the CHEMICAL make up of ALL items used in ALL African societies to SAY this right? YOu come off as a pompous, egotistical, SELF appointed GATEKEEPER, as if someone HAS to go through you in order to be ALLOWED to state their opinions. What are YOUR CREDENTIALS that allows you to spout so much NONSENSE. How many books have YOU written? How many times have you BEEN to Africa? How many African cultures can YOU name? How many African Cultures do you know in INTIMATE detail concerning language, culture and history? Pont being everyone on this board may not have the same level of knowledge, but that is the POINT of this board. If I KNEW everything already, I SURE wouldn't come here expecting to LEARN anything. You are just being ASININE for NO OTHER PURPOSE than just out of spite. NOTHING you are saying is making the least amount of sense, but I WILL make YOU UNDERSTAND the silliness of YOUR WAYS my son.
quote: I really could care less about what you think per se, but more to the point of how you intend to corroborate your questionable claims. That is why I need to know the specifics of what it is you are talking about. The perceptive will have already noticed that examples of these [pertaining to glimps of life in the said African society] have been posted here; it of course, goes without saying, I don't expect you to be observant enough to know what is being talked about.
I know enough to know that your LOGIC is faulty. Yes, there were cultures in Africa that built in stone. HOWEVER, they are NOT in the MAJORITY. You keep trying to TWIST this into something ELSE. SHOW me, in any way you can, HOW THESE cultures are the MAJORITY of African cultures from ANY period and YOU will win the prize. My point is that they ARE NOT and it certainly stands to reason that it is NOT necessary to NAME all of the ancient cultures that existed in Africa to prove it.
quote: Which Aksumite monument(s) are you referring to, and how is/are Aksumite monument(s) related to Egypt "anyway"?
You posted a aksumite obelisk didnt you? This obelisk is a representation IN STONE of wooden structures from Aksum. Therefore, a representation in stone of things from the daily life in Askum. I hope you understand why this is valuable, seeing as how wood is less durable than stone.
All kidding and nonsense aside, it depends on HOW you define a "culture". If you define a culture along the lines of a language family or broad collection of various ethnicities, then fine, that NARROWS the count to a smaller group. However, if you count cultures as small groupings of peoples with independent chiefs and different cultural practices, then the NUMBER can reach the ceiling. How do YOU define a culture? In my mind, the cultures of Africa could be made up of groups as small as a few thousand on up to hundreds of thousands. Many would go "under the radar" since they are so small. In THAT sense there probably TOO many to name. If you go by languages that list grows exponentially:
100,580,000 (1995). Federal Republic of Nigeria. Literacy rate 42% to 51%. Information mainly from Hansford, Bendor-Samuel, and Stanford 1976; J. Bendor-Samuel, ed., 1989; CAPRO 1992; Crozier and Blench 1992. Locations for some languages indicate new Local Government Area (LGA) names, but the older Division and District names are given if the new names are not yet known. Also includes Lebanese, European. Data accuracy estimate: A2, B. Also includes Pulaar Fulfulde, Lebanese, European. Christian, Muslim, traditional religion. Blind population 800,000 (1982 WCE). Deaf institutions: 22. The number of languages listed for Nigeria is 478. Of those, 470 are living languages, 1 is a second language without mother tongue speakers, and 7 are extinct.
ABINSI (JUKUN ABINSI, RIVER JUKUN) [JUB] Gongola State, Wukari LGA, at Sufa and Kwantan Sufa; Benue State, Makurdi Division, Iharev District at Abinsi. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Kororofa. In Kororofa language cluster. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
ABUA (ABUAN) [ABN] 25,000 (1989 Faraclas). Rivers State, Degema and Ahoada LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Central Delta, Abua-Odual. Dialects: CENTRAL ABUAN, EMUGHAN, OTABHA (OTAPHA), OKPEDEN. The central dialect is understood by all others. Odual is the most closely related language, about 70% lexical similarity. NT 1978. Bible portions 1973.
ACIPA, EASTERN (ACIPANCI, ACHIPA) [AWA] 5,000 (1993). Niger State, Kontagora LGA; Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA. Towns include Randeggi and Bobi. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kamuku. Dialect: BOROMA (TABOROMA). 83% lexical similarity between Randeggi and Bobi; 52% with Shama, 47% to 50% with Kamuuku, 42% to 44% with Hungworo, 15% to 20% with Western Acipa. The people are called 'Acipawa'. An isolated area. The influence of the Hausa language or of the Muslim religion is slight. Traditional religion.
ACIPA, WESTERN (ACIPANCI, ACHIPA) [AWC] Niger State, Kontagora LGA; Kebbi State, Sakaba LGA. Towns include Kumbashi, Kakihum, and Karisen. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Unclassified. Dialect: CEP (TOCHIPO, TACEP, WESTERN ACIPANCI). 89% to 95% lexical similarity among the dialects; 15% to 20% with Eastern Acipa, 18% with Hungworo, 16% to 17% with Shama, 15% to 17% with Kamuku. The people are called 'Acipawa'. An isolated area. The influence of the Hausa language or of the Muslim religion is slight. A member of the Kamuku language cluster. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
ADUGE [ADU] 1,904 (1992 Crozier and Blench). Kwara State, Oyi LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Northwestern. Survey needed.
AFADE (AFFADE, AFADEH, AFADA) [AAL] 20,000 or fewer in Nigeria (1989 SIL). Borno State, Ngala LGA. Also in Cameroon. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, B, B.1, Kotoko Proper. Survey needed.
AGATU (NORTH IDOMA, OCHEKWU) [AGC] 70,000 (1987 UBS). Benue State, Otuko Divison, districts of Agatu, Ochekwu, and Adoka; Plateau State, Awe and Nasarawa LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Idomoid, Akweya, Etulo-Idoma, Idoma. In Idoma dialect cluster. NT 1984. Bible portions 1951-1968.
AGOI (RO BAMBAMI, WA BAMBANI, IBAMI) [IBM] 12,000 (1989 Faraclas). Cross River State, Obubra LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Agoi-Doko-Iyoniyong. Dialect: IKO. Survey needed.
AKOKO, NORTH (NORTHERN AKOKO) [AKK] Ondo State, Akoko North LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Defoid, Akokoid. Dialects: OYIN, OKE-AGBE, URO, ARIGIDI, ERUSU, AHAN (AHAAN), AYERE, UDO, AFFA (AFA), OGE, AJE. A dialect cluster. Survey needed.
AKPA (AKWEYA) [AKF] 5,500 in Akpa (1952 Robert G. Armstrong). Benue State, Otukpo LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Idomoid, Yatye-Akpa. Dialect cluster. 84% lexical similarity with Ekpari. Survey needed.
AKPES (IBARAM-EFIFA) [IBE] 10,000 or more (1992 Crozier and Blench). Ondo State, Akoko North LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Ukaan-Akpes. Dialects: AKUNNU (AKPES), ASE, DAJA, EFIFA, ESUKU (ECHUKU), GEDEGEDE, IKOROM, IBARAM, IYANI. Yoruba is the lingua franca. Survey needed.
ALAGO (ARAGU, ARAGO, ARGO, IDOMA NOKWU) [ALA] 35,000 (1973 SIL). Plateau State, Awe and Lafia LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Idomoid, Akweya, Etulo-Idoma, Idoma. Dialects: DOMA, AGWATASHI, KEANA, ASSAIKIO. 5% literate. Hausa is the second language. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1929.
ALEGE (ALEGI, UGE, UGBE) [ALF] 1,200 (1973 SIL). Cross River State, Obudu LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Bendi. Related to Gayi (Bisu of Obanliku cluster) of Nigeria and Cameroon. Survey needed.
AMBO [AMB] Baissa area. Unclassified. Survey needed.
AMO (AMON, AMONG, TIMAP, BA) [AMO] 3,550 (1950. Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Amo. Timap is the language, Kumap a speaker, Amap the people. Not close to other languages. Survey needed.
ANAANG (ANANG, ANNANG) [ANW] 1,000,000 (1990). Akwa Ibom State, Ikot Ekpene, Essien Udim, Abak, Ukanafun, and Oruk-Anam LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, East. Related to Efik. Used as a medium of instruction in the schools. Survey needed.
ANGAS (NNGAS, KERANG, KARANG) [ANC] 100,000 (1973 SIL). Plateau State, Pankshin, Kanam, and Langtang LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.3, Angas Proper, 1. Dialects: HILL ANGAS, PLAIN ANGAS. The people are called 'Kerang' or 'Karang'. NT 1979. Bible portions 1916-1928.
ARABIC, SHUWA (ARABE CHOA, SHUWA ARABIC, SHUA, CHADIC ARABIC) [SHU] 100,000 in Nigeria (1973 SIL); 754.590 in Chad (1993); 63,600 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 50,000 in Niger (1991); 63,000 in Central African Republic (1996); 1,031,000 in all countries. Borno State, Dikwa, Konduga, Ngala, and Bama LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Semitic, Central, South, Arabic. No diglossia with Modern Standard Arabic. The term 'Shua' is considered perjorative by some people. Trade language. Muslim. NT 1967-1991. Bible portions 1964.
ARUM-CESU (ARUM-CHESSU) [AAB] Plateau State, Akwanga LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Tarokoid. May be a dialect of Turkwam. Survey needed.
ATEN (GANAWURI, ETIEN, JAL, TEN, NITEN) [GAN] 40,000 (1988 Kjenstad). Plateau State, Barakin Ladi LGA; Kaduna State, Jema'a LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Central, North-Central. Dialect: KWAKWI. The language is Ten, a speaker Aten, the people Niten. Bible portions 1940.
BA (KWA, KWAH, BAA) [KWB] 7,000 (1992). Adamawa State, Numan LGA, Kaakan, a village near Munga. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Kwa. Speakers use Bacama as second language. Different from Kwa' of Cameroon in the Bamileke group. Tradesmen: butchers. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
BACAMA (BACHAMA, BASHAMMA, ABACAMA, BESEMA, BWAREBA, GBOARE) [BAM] 150,000 (1992); 300,000 together with Bata (1992). Adamawaa State, Numan and Guyuk LGA's, Kaduna State, northeast of Kaduna town. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8. Dialects: MULYEN (MULWYIN, MWULYIN), DONG, OPALO, WA-DUKU. In Bata dialect cluster. Trade language. Agriculturalists, fishermen. Bible portions 1915.
BADA (BADAWA, BADANCHI, BAT, MBADA, MBAT, MBADAWA, KANNA, JAR, JARAWAN KOGI, GARAKA, RIVER JARAWA, PLAINS JARAWA) [BAU] 10,000 (SIL). Plateau State, Kanam LGA; Bauchi State, Tafawa Balewa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Jarawan, Nigerian. Dialects: KANTANA, GAR. The language is called 'River Jarawa' or 'Plains Jarawa'. A member of the Jarawa dialect cluster. Mainly traditional religion.
BADE (BEDDE, BEDDA, BEDDU, BEDE, GIDGID) [BDE] 250,000 (1993). Yobeo State, Bade LGA; Jigawa State, Hadejia LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.1, Bade Proper. Dialects: GASHUA, MAZGARWA, BADE-KADO, MAGWARAM. SHIRAWA. Shirawa dialect is extinct. Fair degree of bilingualism in Hausa, Kanuri, or Fulani. Closely related to Duwai and Ngizim, but separate languages. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian.
BAGIRMI (BAGARMI, BARMA, TAR BARMA, TAR BAGRIMMA, LIS, LISI) [BMI] A few in Nigeria; 67,000 in Chad (1993 Johnstone). Borno State, Maiduguri LGA. Nilo-Saharan, Central Sudanic, West, Bongo-Bagirmi, Sara-Bagirmi, Bagirmi. Work in progress.
BAKPINKA (UWET, IYONGIYONG) [BBS] Cross River State, Akamkpa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Agoi-Doko-Iyoniyong. The language is reported to be dying out. Survey needed.
BALI (NDAGAM, BOLI) [BCN] 12,000 (1987). Taraba State, Numan LGA, at Bali, 30 km. from Numan on the road to Jalingo. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Yandang. Reported to be closely related to Kpasam and Yotti. They speak Hausa as second language, and some Bacama or Fulfulde. Agriculturalists: guinea corn, peanuts, rice. Christian, traditional religion, Muslim. Survey needed.
BANA (FALI) [FLI] 96,000 in Nigeria (1992); 13,000 in Cameroon; 109,000 in all countries. Adamawa State, Mubi and Michika LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.3. Dialects: THLUKFU, GILI (GUILI), BWAGIRA, PESKI. 'Bana' is the name in Cameroon, 'Fali' in Nigeria. Subgroups include the Vimtim, Muchalla, Bahuli, Julvu, Mijulu, Mua, Maduguva, Kiviya, Mukuta, Betso. People use Fulfulde or Hausa as second language. Little formal education. Hills, plains. Africulturalists: guinea corn, maize, peanuts, bambara nuts, tiger nuts, rice; animal husbandry: cows, sheep, goats, chickens. Traditional religion. Work in progress.
BANGWINJI (BANGUNJI) [BSJ] 6,000 or fewer (1992 Crozier and Blench). Bauchi State, Balanga and Billiri-Kaltungo LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Waja, Tula. Noun class system is closer to Waja and Tula. Survey needed.
BARAWA (BAARAAWAA) [BWR] Bauchi State, near the Geji. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.3. Survey needed.
BARIBA (BAATONUN, BATONNUM, BATONU, BAATONUN-KWARA, BARGU, BURGU, BORGU, BORGAWA, BERBA, BARBA, BOGUNG, ZANA) [BBA] 60,000 in Nigeria (1993); 342,000 in Benin (1991 Vanderaa); 400,000 in all countries (1991 UBS). Kwara State, Borgu LGA; Niger State. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Gur, Bariba. Bariba of Nigeria may require separate literature from Boko of Benin. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible in press (1995). NT 1977. Bible portions 1953-1968.
BARIKANCHI [BXO] Pidgin, Hausa based. Used in military barracks. Second language only. No mother tongue speakers.
BASA-KADUNA (BASSA-KADUNA, BASA-GUMNA, GWADARA BASA, BASA KUTA) [BSL] Niger State, Chanchaga LGA; Plateau State, Nassarawa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Basa. No fluent speakers left in 1987. Extinct.
BATA (GBWATA, BATTA, DEMSA BATA, GBOATI, GBWATE, BETE, BIRSA, DUNU) [BTA] 150,000 in Nigeria (1992); 2,500 in Cameroon; 152,500 in all countries. 300,000 together with the Bacama in Nigeria (1992). Adamawa State, Numan, Song, Fufore, and Mubi LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8. Dialects: ZUMU (ZOMO, JIMO), WADI (WA'I), MALABU, KOBOTACHI, RIBAW, DEMSA, GAROUA, JIRAI. Closely related languages: Bacama, Gude, Njanyi, Vimtin, Ziziliveken. They have joined with the Bacama in the Bwatiye Association. Kofa may be a related language. Agriculturalists, fishermen, animal husbandry: pigs, goats. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian.
BATU [BTU] 25,000. Taraba State, Sardauna LGA, Batu town. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Tivoid. Survey needed.
BEGBERE-EJAR (KORO AGWE, AGERE, KORO MAKAMA, KORON ACHE, KORO MYAMYA, MIAMIA, MIAMIYA) [KOR] 35.000 including Ashe (1972 Barrett). Kaduna State, Kachia LGA, Plateau State, Keffi LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Western, Northwestern, Koro. Dialects: KORON ACHE (ASHE, ALA), KORON PANDA, EJAR. Ejar may be a separate language. Koron Ache and Koron Panda are subdialects of Begbere. The alternate names listed refer to the people. 'Koro' is used as a cover term for several groups. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian.
BEKWARRA (EBEKWARA, BEKWORRA, YAKORO) [BKV] 100,000 (1989 SIL). Cross River State, Ogoja LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Bendi. Used in radio and TV news. NT 1983. Bible portions 1970.
BELE [BXQ] Bauchi State, near the Bole. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Bole, Bole Proper. A separate language from Bole. Muslim. Survey needed.
BEROM (BIROM, BERUM, GBANG, KIBO, KIBBO, KIBBUN, KIBYEN, "SHOSHO", ABORO, BORO-ABORO, AFANGO, CHENBEROM) [BOM] 300,000 (1993 SIL). Plateau State, Berakin Ladi and Jos LGA's; Kaduna State, Jema'a LGA; Bauchi State. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Southern. Dialects: GYELL-KURU-VWANG (NGELL-KURU-VWANG), FAN-FORON-HEIKPANG, BACHIT-GASHISH, DU-ROPP-RIM, HOSS. The language is Chenberom, a speaker Worom, the people Berom. "Shosho" is an offensive name. 25% to 50% literate. NT 1984. Bible portions 1916-1936.
BETE [BYF] Few speakers out of 3,000 population (1992). Taraba State, Takum LGA, Bete town, at the foot of Bete mountain. Unclassified. The language is dying out. Reported to have been close to Lufu and Bibi. The people now speak Jukun. 6 subgroups: Aphan (Afan), Ruke, Osu, Agu, Botsu, Humiyan. Formerly had land disputes with the Tiv. Christian, traditional religion. Nearly extinct.
BETE-BENDE (BETE, BETTE, BETTE-BENDI, MBETE, DAMA, BENDI) [BTT] 36,800 (1963). Cross River State, Obudu LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Bendi. Not the same as Bete of Nigeria in Gongola State, Bete of Cameroon, or Bete of Côte d'Ivoire. NT 1982. Bible portions 1977.
BILE (BILLE, BILLANCHI, KUNBILLE, BILI) [BIL] 30,000 (1992). East of Numan, along Benue River, Adamawa State, Numan LGA's, southwest of Numan. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Jarawan, Nigerian. Related to Mbula-Bwazza. Speakers use Hausa and Fulfulde as second languages. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
BILIRI [BIA] Bauchi State, Billiri-Kaltungo and Akko LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Tangale, Tangale Proper. Close to Tangale. Conflicting reports about whether it is a dialect of Tangale or a separate language.
BISENI (BUSENI, AMEGI, NORTHEAST CENTRAL IJO) [IJE] 4,800 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Rivers State, Yenagoa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Ijo, Central, Oruma-Northeast Central, Northeast Central. Not intelligible with other languages in the Ijo language cluster. Survey needed.
BITARE (NJWANDE, YUKUTARE) [BRE] 50,000 in all countries (1971 Welmers), 3,700 in Cameroon (1983 SIL). Taraba State, Sardauna LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Tivoid. Closely related to Abong. Survey needed.
BOGA (BOKA) [BOD] Adamawa State, Gombi LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.1, Eastern. Survey needed.
BOKO (BOKO, BOKONYA, BOKKO) [BQC] 40,000 in Nigeria (1995); 70,000 in Benin (1995); 110,000 in all countries (1995 Ross Jones SIM). Niger State, Borgu LGA; Kebbi State, Bagudo LGA, from Senji in the north to Kenugbe and Kaoje, 150 km. to the south and Demmo, 50 km. to the east, 35 villages. Niger-Congo, Mande, Eastern, Southeastern, Eastern, Busa. Other Busa languages in Nigeria require separate literature. Traditional religion, Muslim. Bible 1992. NT 1984.
BOKOBARU (BUSA-BOKOBARU, ZONGBEN) [BUS] 45,000 (1995 Ross Jones SIM), including 10,000 in Kaama, 35,000 in Lakatu. Kwara State, primarily Kiama LGA, some in Baruten LGA. Niger-Congo, Mande, Eastern, Southeastern, Eastern, Busa. Dialects: KAAMA (KAIAMA), LAKATU. Kaama and Lakatu have good inherent intelligibility of each other's dialects. The people are Bussawa. They call their language 'Bussagwe'. The Hausa call their language 'Busanchi'. The Bokobaru variety is distinct enough to require separate literature from Busa-Boko of Benin. The Bisa variety of Nigeria may also require separate literature. Not the same language as Bissa of Burkina Faso and Ghana. Speakers use Hausa, Yoruba, English, Bariba, Fulfulde as second languages to speakers from those groups. 4% literate. Speakers have high motivation for literacy. Typology: SOV; gentives before noun heads; articles, adjective, numerals, relatives after noun heads; question word initial or final; 4 suffixes; word order distinguishes subject, object, indirect object; postpositions; person, number, aspect included in subject pronouns; tone changes some verb aspect; passives; CV, CVV, CCV; tonal. Levels of bilingualism in English are 0:80%, 1:10%, 2:4%, 3:3%, 4:2%, 5:1%. Interfluvial. Peasant agriculturalists. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian. Bible portions 1972-1994. Work in progress.
BOKYI (BOKI, NKI, OKII, UKI, NFUA, OSIKOM, OSUKAM, VAANEROKI) [BKY] 140,000 in Nigeria (1989 SIL); 3,700 in Cameroon; 144,000 in all countries. Cross River State, Ikom, Obudu, and Ogoja LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Bendi. Dialects: BASUA, BOKI, IRRUAN (ERWAN, EERWEE), BOJE (BOJIE), KWAKWAGOM, NSADOP, OSOKOM, WULA, BASUA, OKU, BOORIM, OYOKOM, ABU, EASTERN BOKYI. Ethnic groups: Ndir, Ukwese, Utang, Yon. Important district language. Bible 1987. NT 1978.
BOLE (BOLANCHI, AMPIKA, BORPIKA, BOLEWA, BOLAWA) [BOL] 100,000 (1990). Bauchi State, Dukku, Alakaleri, and Darazo LGA's; Borno State, Fika LGA; Plateau State, Wase LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Bole, Bole Proper. Dialects: BARA, FIKA (FIKANKAYEN, ANPIKA). Speakers are called 'Bolewa' or 'Bolawa'. Bele is a separate language. The Ngara (2,000 in 1993) claim to be part of Bole, but the Bolewa disagree. Muslim. Survey needed.
BOSO, SOROGAMA (SOROGAMA, COROGAMA, SORKO, SARKANCI, SARKAWA, JENAMA, NONONKE, "BOZO") [BZE] (100,000 in Mali; 1991 Vanderaa). Niger, Kwara, and Kebbi states, Lake Kainji. Niger-Congo, Mande, Western, Soninke-Bozo. In Nigeria, 'Sorko' is preferred. Those in Nigeria mainly speak Hausa as mother tongue. Fishermen. Muslim. Work in progress.
BUDUMA (BOUDOUMA, YEDINA, YEDIMA, YIDANA) [BDM] 3,000 in Nigeria; 51,600 in Chad (1993); 4,000 in Niger; 200 in Cameroon; 58,800 in all countries. Borno State, on islands in Lake Chad. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, B, B.1, Buduma. Dialects: BUDUMA, KURI (KOURI, KAKAA). Semi-nomadic. Pastoralists, fishermen. Muslim, traditional religion. Work in progress.
BUMAJI [BYP] Cross River State, Obudu LGA, Bumaji town. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Bendi. Survey needed.
BURA-PABIR (BURA, BURRA, PABIR, BABIR, BABUR, BARBURR, KWOJEFFA, HUVE, HUVIYA) [BUR] 250,000 (1990 UBS), including 200,000 Pabir (1993). 32,000 in Adamawa State (1992). Borno State, Biu and Askira-Uba LGA's; Adamawa State, Gombi LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.2, 1. Dialects: PELA (HILL BURA), HYILHAWUL (HILHAWU, PLAIN BURA). 3% literate. Ngohi is a small subgroup. Kofa or Kota may be a related language. Agriculturalists, weavers, hunters, fishermen, wood carbers. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. NT 1937-1987. Bible portions 1925-1937.
BUSA-BISÃ (BISÃ, BISAYÃ, BUSA-BISA, BUSANO, BUSSANCHI) [BQP] 40,000 first language speakers, 13,000 second language users (1995 Ross Jones SIM). Niger State, Borgu LGA. Niger-Congo, Mande, Eastern, Southeastern, Eastern, Busa. Dialects: NEW BUSA, WAWA, ILLO. The two dialects are inherently intelligible to each other's speakers. Busa has more prestige, but Wawa recognized as purer. Other Busa languages (Busa-Boko, Busa-Bokobaru) require separate literature. Different from Bissa of Burkina Faso. Speakers use Hausa and Kambari as second languages when speaking to non-Bisã people. Hausa is used in school. 5% literate. Typology: SOV; postpositions; genitives before noun heads; articles, adjectives, numerals, relatives after noun heads; question word initial or final; 4 suffixes; word order distinguishes subject, object, direct object; person, number, aspect included in subject pronouns; tone indicates some verb aspect; passive; CV, CVV, CCV; tonal. Levels of bilingualism in Hausa, Kambari, English are 0:30%, 1:40%, 2:13%, 3:10%, 4:5%, 5:2%. Riverine. Peasant agriculturalists. Muslim. Work in progress.
CHE (RUKUBA, KUCHE, BACHE, INCHAZI) [RUK] 50,000 (1973 SIL). Plateau State, Bassa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Western, Southwestern, A. The language is Kuche, a speaker Ache, the people Bache. Bible portions 1924-1931.
CISHINGINI (ASHAGANNA, ASHINGINI, ASCHINGINI, CHISINGINI, "MAUNCHI", "MAWANCHI", KAMBARI, KAMBERRI, KAMBERCHI, YAURI, AGWARA KAMBARI) [ASG] 80,000 (1996). Niger State, Borgu and Agwara LGA's, just west of the Niger River and north of the Kainji game park; and Kebbi State, east of the Niger River from the Yelwa area south to Ngaski and Nasko. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kambari. Dialect: ROFIA. Close to Tsishingini and Tsikimba, but a separate language. Speakers are called 'Ashingini'. Speakers can use Hausa, and some can use English or other Kambari languages. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1994. Work in progress.
COMO KARIM (CHOMO, SHOMONG, SHOMOH, NUADHU, SHOMO KARIM, KINZIMBA, ASOM) [CFG] Taraba State, Jalingo, Karim Lamido LGA's, near Lau. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Unclassified. Dialect: KARIM (KIRIM, KIYU). Called 'Bakula' together with Shoo-Minda-Nyem, Jiru, and Jessi. Hunters, fishermen. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
DASS [DOT] 8,830; including 1,130 Lukshi, 4,700 Durr-Baraza, 700 Wandi and Zumbul, 2,300 Dot (1971 census). Bauchi State, Toro and Dass LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.3. Dialects: LUKSHI (DUKSHI), DURR-BARAZA (BANDAS), ZUMBUL (BOODLA), WANDI (WANGDAY), DOT (DWAT, ZODI DAT, DOTT). A dialect cluster. Survey needed.
DAZA (DAZAWA) [DZD] Bauchi State, Darazo LGA, a few villages. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, Unclassified. Apparently different from Daza in Chad and Niger, which is Saharan. Survey needed.
DEFAKA (AFAKANI) [AFN] 1,000 or fewer (1992 Crozier and Blench). Rivers State, Bonny LGA, in the Niger Delta, town of Nkoro. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Defaka. Related to, but a separate language from the Ijo group. Survey needed.
DENDI (DANDAWA) [DEN] A few in Nigeria; 42,300 in Niger (1991); 30,000 in Benin (1995 R. Jones SIM); 72,000 in all countries, or more. Kebbi State, Argungu and Bagudo LGA's, on upper Niger River. Nilo-Saharan, Songhai. A closely related language to Dyerma and Songhai. NT in press (1994).
DERA (KANAKURU, DERU) [KNA] 20,000 (1973 SIL). Gongola State, Guyuk LGA; Borno State, Biu LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Tangale, Dera. Dialects: KIRI, DERA. Some speakers use Hausa, Bura, Lala, Fulfulde, Longuda, or English as second language. Many are educated. Most villages have primary schools. Agriculturalists: guinea corn, peanuts, cotton; hunters, fishermen. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1937. Survey needed.
DIJIM [CFA] 7,539, including 3,257 Cham, 4,282 Mwana (1968 Jungraithmayr). Bauchi State, Balanga LGA; Gongola State, Numan LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Waja, Cham-Mona. Dialects: CAM (CHAM), MWANA (MWANO, MWONA, MWOMO, MONA, BWILIM). Cham and Mwana may be separate languages. Related to Lotsu-Piri. Survey needed.
DIRI (DIRYA, DIRIYA, DIRYAWA) [DWA] 3,750 (1971). Bauchi State, Ningi and Darazo LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.2. A separate language from Tsagu. Survey needed.
DIRIM (DIRIN, DIRRIM, DAKA, DAKKA) [DIR] 9,000 (1992). Taraba State, Bali LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Dakoid. Closely related to Chamba Daka. Many blind people, caused by filaria. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian.
DOKO-UYANGA (UYANGA, DOSANGA, BASANGA, IKO) [UYA] A few. Cross River State, Akamkpa LGA, several towns. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Agoi-Doko-Iyoniyong. Survey needed.
DONG (DONGA) [DOH] 5,000 to 10,000 (1995). Taraba State, Zing and Mayo Belwa LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Leko. Distinct from Dongo (Donga) of Zaïre, which is in the Amadi group of Ubangi (Adamawa-Ubangi). Survey needed.
DUGURI (DUGURAWA, DUGARWA, DUGURANCHI, DUKURI) [DBM] 12,000 (1973 SIL). Bauchi State; Plateau State, Langtang LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Jarawan, Nigerian. Dialects: GAR DUGURI, BADARA DUGURI, NORTHEAST DUGURI, SOUTHWEST DUGURI. A member of the Jarawa dialect cluster. Traditional religion, Christian.
DUKANCI (DUKA, DUKAWA, DUKWA, DUKANCHI, HUN-SAARE) [DUD] 73,000 including 10,000 outside the traditional area (1985 Patience Ahmed). Kebbi State, Wasagu and Yauri LGA's; Niger State, Rijau LGA, and migrants farther south. Dialect centers are Rijau-Senjir, Dukku-Iri, Zente-Dogo, and Darengi. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Duka. Dialects: EASTERN DUKA (HUN, ET-HUN, HUNE), WESTERN DUKA (ES-SAARE). Dukawa from the west refer to the speech of the east as 'Es-Saare', just as they refer to their own. 85% lexical similarity between Rijau and Dukku dialects; 63% Duka with Puku-Geeri-Keri-Wipsi, 50% with Lela, 47% with Gwamhi-Wuri. 2% literate. Savannah. Plains, hills. Peasant agriculturalists, hunters. Altitude: 200 to 500 meters. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1974-1979. Work in progress.
DZA (JANJO, JENJO, JEN, NJENG, JA, ZAH, KARENJO) [JEN] 6,100 (1952). Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, and Adamawa State, Numan LGA, Jen town, east of Karim-Lamido town, south of Bambuka town, by the Benue River bank. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Jen. Agriculturalists, hunters. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim.
EBIRA (IGBIRRA, IGBARRA, IBARA, KOTOKORI, KATAWA, KWOTTO, IGBIRA, EGBIRA, EGBURA) [IGB] 1,000,000 (1989 J. Adive). Kwara State, Okene, Okehi, and Kogi LGA's; Plateau State, Nassarawa LGA; Bendel State, Akoko-Edo LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Nupoid, Ebira-Gade. Dialects: PANDA, HIMA (IHIMA, OKENE), IGARA (ETUNO), IGU (EGU, IKA, BIRA, BIRI). Ebira is used in schools. 25% literate. Agriculturalists. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian. NT 1981. Bible portions 1891-1960.
EBUGHU (ORON) [EBG] 5,000 or more (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Mbo and Oron LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
EDO (BINI, BENIN, ADDO, OVIEDO, OVIOBA) [EDO] 1,000,000 (1997 UBS). Bendel State, Ovia, Oredo, and Orhionmwon LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, North-Central, Edo-Esan-Ora. Used in radio, television, adult, primary, and secondary education, dictionary, history text, mother tongue authored literature. Roman script used. National language. Bible in press (1995). NT 1981. Bible portions 1914-1935.
EFAI (EFFIAT) [EFA] 5,000 or more (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Mbo LGA, and in Cameroon, Isangele Subdivision. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, East. May be a dialect of Efik. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
EFIK (CALABAR) [EFK] 360,000 total first language speakers (1989); 10,000 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 2,000,000 total second language speakers (1989). Cross River State, Calabar Municipality, Odukpani and Akamkpa LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, East. The major dialect and literary language of the Ibibio-Efik group. Used in radio, television, adult, primary, and secondary education, university courses, mother tongue-authored literature, dictionary, grammar. Roman script. National language. Typology: SVO. Bible 1868, in press (1995). NT 1862-1947. Bible portions 1850-1866.
EGGON (EGON, MEGONG, MADA EGGON) [EGO] 140,368 (1990). Plateau State, Akwanga and Lafia LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Western, Southwestern, B. Dialects: MATATARWA, MATENGALA, HILL MADA. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. NT 1974. Bible portions 1935.
EJAGHAM (EKOI) [ETU] 45,000 in Nigeria; 35,000 in Cameroon; 80,000 in all countries (1982 J. Watters SIL). Cross River State, Akampka, Idom, Odukpani, Calabar LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Ekoid. Dialects: SOUTHERN EJAGHAM (EKIN, QUA, KWA, AQUA, ABAKPA), WESTERN EJAGHAM, EASTERN EJAGHAM. Western Ejagham includes Bendeghe Etung (Bindege, Dindiga, Mbuma), Northern Etung, Southern Etung, Ekwe, Akamkpa-Ejagham. Eastern Ejagham includes Keaka (Keaqa, Kejaka, Edjagam), Obang (Eeafeng). Used in radio and TV news. Bible portions 1985. Work in progress.
EKIT (EKET) [EKE] 200,000 (1989). Akwa Ibom State, Uquo Ibeno and Eket LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, East. Related to Efik. Survey needed.
EKPARI (YACE, YACHE, YATYE, IYACE) [EKR] 10,000 (1982 UBS). Cross River State, Ogoja LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Idomoid, Yatye-Akpa. 84% lexical similarity with Akpa. Bible portions 1980. Work in progress.
EKPEYE [EKP] 30,000 (1973 SIL). Rivers State, Ahoada and Yenagoa LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Igboid, Ekpeye. Dialects: AKO, UPATA, UBYE, IGBUDUYA. Related to Igbo but not inherently intelligible with it. Survey needed.
ELEME [ELM] 58,000 (1990 UBS). Rivers State, Otelga LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Ogoni, West. Bible portions 1988. Work in progress.
ELOYI (AFO, AFU, AHO, AFAO, EPE, KEFFI) [AFO] 25,000 (SIL). Plateau State, Awe and Nassarawa LGA's; Benue State, Otukpo LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Idomoid, Akweya, Eloyi. Dialects: MBECI, MBAMU. People use Hausa as second language. They are 5% literate in Hausa. Traditional religion, Muslim Christian. Work in progress.
EMAI-IULEHA-ORA (KUNIBUM, IVBIOSAKON) [EMA] 100,000 (1987 Schaefer). Edo State, Owan LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, North-Central, Edo-Esan-Ora. Dialects: IVHIMION, EMAI, IULEHA, ORA. Dialect cluster. Ora is used in initial primary education. Traditional religion. Bible portions 1908-1910. Survey needed.
ENGLISH [ENG] Second language speakers: 1,000,000 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin); 322,000,000 in all countries (1995 WA). Indo-European, Germanic, West, North Sea, English. Used in government, education. National language. Bible 1535-1989. NT 1525-1985. Bible portions 1530-1987.
EPIE (EPIE-ATISSA) [EPI] 12,000 (1973 SIL). Rivers State, Yenagoa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Delta. Dialect: ATISA (ATISSA). Most speakers are bilingual in Ijo. Survey needed.
ERUWA (EROHWA, ERAKWA, AROKWA) [ERH] Bendel State, Isoko LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Southwestern. Related to Urhobo. Most speakers are bilingual in Central Isoko, which is replacing Eruwa. Not intelligible with any Isoko dialect. Survey needed.
ESAN (ISHAN, ISA, ESA, ANWAIN) [ISH] 200,000 (1973 SIL). Bendel State, Agbazko, Okpebho, Owan, and Etsako LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, North-Central, Edo-Esan-Ora. Dialects: EKPON, IGUEBEN. Many dialects, apparently inherently intelligible. A regionally important language. Used in initial primary education, TV. 99% speak or understand Nigerian Pidgin English. Tropical forest. Plains. Peasant agriculturalists: yams, bananas, oranges, plantains, cassava; hunters. Christian, traditional religion, Muslim. Bible portions 1974. Work in progress.
ETEBI [ETB] 15,000 (1989). Akwa Ibom State, Uquo Ibeno LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, East. 'Oron' and 'Ekit' are incorrect names. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
EVAND (EVANT, AVAND, AVANDE, OVAND, OVANDE, OVANDO, BALEGETE, BELEGETE) [BZZ] 10,000 or fewer in Nigeria (1996 R. Hedinger); 1,000 or fewer in Cameroon (1996 R. Hedinger); 11,000 or fewer in all countries. Cross River State, Obudu LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Tivoid. 50% lexical similarity with Icheve, Tiv, and Otanga. Mountains. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
FALI OF BAISSA [FAH] Some speakers left (1992 Crozier & Blench). Southern Taraba State, Falinga Plateau region. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Unclassified. Nearly extinct.
FAM [FAM] 1,000 or fewer (1984). Southeast, north of the Mambila Plateau, west of Serti, east of Bibinu, Taraba State, Bali LGA, 17 km. east of Kungana. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Fam. Not closely related to other languages. Survey needed.
FIRAN [FIR] 1,500 or fewer (1991 C. Regnier). Plateau State, Barkin Ladi LGA, Kwakwi Station south of Jos. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Central, South-Central. A separate, but related language to Izere. Survey needed.
FULFULDE, ADAMAWA (EASTERN FULANI, FULFULDE, FULATANCHI, FILLANCI, FULA, FULBE, FULANI) [FUB] 760,000 or more in all countries; 7,611,000 all Fulfulde in Nigeria, or 8.6% of the population (1991 SIL). East central Nigeria, Taraba and Adamawa States, center in Yola. Also in Cameroon, Chad, and Sudan. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Northern, Senegambian, Fula-Wolof, Fulani, Eastern. The language is Fulatanchi, Fillanci, or Fula; a speaker is Pullo; the people are Fulbe or Fulani. National language, trade language. Muslim, traditional religion. Bible 1983. NT 1963-1964. Bible portions 1919-1966.
FULFULDE, KANO-KATSINA-BORORRO [FUV] (7,611,000 all Fulfulde in Nigeria; 1991 SIL). Kano-Katsina dialect is spoken in the area of Kano, Katsina, Zaria, Jos Plateau and southeast to Bauchi; Gombe is the center. The Bororro dialect is in Bornu State; Maiduguri is the center. Also in Niger, Cameroon, Chad, and Central African Republic. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Northern, Senegambian, Fula-Wolof, Fulani, East Central. Dialects: KANO-KATSINA, BORORRO (BORORO, MBORORO, AKO, NOMADIC FULFULDE). Muslim. Work in progress.
FULFULDE, SOKOTO [FUQ] (7,611,000 all Fulfulde in Nigeria; 1991 SIL). Sokoto State. Also in Niger. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Northern, Senegambian, Fula-Wolof, Fulani, East Central. One of the major Fulbe geo-political units. Sokoto dialect is distinct from the other dialects in Nigeria (Arnott 1970). Muslim.
GA'ANDA (GA'ANDU, GANDA, MOKAR, MAKWAR) [GAA] 43,000 (1992). Adamawa State, Gombi LGA. Some also in Song, Guyuk, and Mubi LGA's, and Borno State, Biu LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.1, Eastern. Dialects: GA'ANDA, GABIN. 14 villages have primary schools, and Gaanda has a secondary school. Speakers are becoming more interested in education. Hausa and Fulfulde are used as second languages. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
GADE (GEDE, GODE) [GED] 60,000 (1977 Sterk). Federal Capital Territory and Plateau State, Nassarawa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Nupoid, Ebira-Gade. Considered to be conservative by neighbors. Important district language. Traditional religion, Muslim.
GBARI (GBARI YAMMA, GWARI YAMMA, WEST GWARI, NKWA) [GBY] 300,000 (1991 SIL). From Zungeru in Niger State to the Kaduna River in the north, southeast through Minna and Paiko to a little past Kwali in the Federal Capital Territory. Niger State, Chanchaga, Suleija, Agaie, and Lapai LGA's; Plateau State, Nassarawa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Nupoid, Nupe-Gbagyi, Gbagyi-Gbari. Dialects: KWALI, IZEM, GAYEGI, PAIKO, BOTAI, JEZHU, KONG, KWANGE (KANGYE, AGBAWI, WAKE, WI), WAHE. Dialects share 89% to 98% lexical similarity; 66% to 78% with Gbagyi dialects. Speakers do not want to be considered Gbagyi. 5% to 15% literate. Mountains. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion, some Muslim. Bible portions 1925-1926. Work in progress.
GBAYA, NORTHWEST (BAYA) [GYA] Very few in Nigeria; 334,000 or more in all countries. Taraba State, Bali LGA. Mainly in Central African Republic. Also in Cameroon and Congo. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Ubangi, Gbaya, Gbaya. Dialect: GBEYA (GBEA). Bible 1994. NT 1951-1982. Bible portions 1933-1975.
GENGLE (WEGELE, MOMU, YAGELE) [GEG] Adamawa State, Mayo Belwa and Fufore LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Mumuye. Hausa is used as second language. Not the same as Gongla. Traditional religion, Christian, Mulsim. Survey needed.
GERA (GERAWA) [GEW] 13,300 (1971). Bauchi State, Bauchi and Darazo LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Bole, Bole Proper. Survey needed.
GEVOKO (GVOKO, GHBOKO, GAVOKO, KUVOKO, NGOSSI, NGOSHI, NGOSHE-NDHANG, NGWESHE-NDAGHAN, NGOSHE SAMA, NGGWESHE) [NGS] 20,000 or more in Nigeria (1990). Borno State, Gwoza LGA; Adamawa State, Michika LGA. Also in Cameroon. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.4, Mandara Proper, Glavda. A separate but related language to Glavda and Guduf. Survey needed.
GIBANAWA (GEMBANAWA, GIMBANAWA, JEGA) [GIB] Sokoto State, Jega LGA, near the Dukawa. Unclassified. May be related to Duka, or be Hausa-speaking Fulani. The largest group in Jega LGA. Survey needed.
GLAVDA (GALAVDA, GELEBDA, GLANDA, GUELEBDA, VALE, GALVAXDAXA) [GLV] 20,000 in Nigeria (1963); 2,800 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 22,800 in all countries. Borno State, Gwoza LGA, mainly in Nggoshe village (different from Ngoshi), and in Agapalawa, Amuda, Vale, Ashigashiya, Kerawa, Pelekwa villages. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.4, Mandara Proper, Glavda. Dialects: BOKWA, NGOSHIE (NGWESHE), GLAVDA, CINENI. Cineni may be a dialect or separate ethnic group. Closely related to Guduf. Distinct from Vale of Chad and Central African Republic, which is Chari-Nile. 5% literate. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1967.
GOEMAI (ANKWAI, ANKWEI, ANKWE, KEMAI) [ANK] 200,000 or more (1995). Plateau State, Shendam, Lafia, and Awe LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.3, Angas Proper, 2. Hausa is used as lingua franca. Traditional religion, Muslim.
GOKANA [GKN] 100,000 (1989). Rivers State, Gokana, Tai-Eleme LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Ogoni, East. NT in press (1996). Bible portions 1993.
GUDE (CHEKE, TCHADE, SHEDE, MUBI, MAPODI, MAPUDA, NGUF, NDAN-DAN KWA, ZIRTALI, DAMANUNUKWA) [GDE] 68,000 in Nigeria (1987); 28,000 in Cameroon; 96,000 in all countries. Adamawa State, Mubi LGA; Borno State, Askira-Uba LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8. Different dialects are spoken in Cameroon and Nigeria but they are inherently intelligible. Speakers use Hausa, Fulfulde, Nzzanyi, or English as second languages. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian. Bible portions 1974-1995. Work in progress.
GUDU (GUDO, GUTU, KUDOMOHADA) [GDU] 5,000 (1993). Adamawa State, Song LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8. Dialect: KUMBI. Formerly the culture and religion were similar to the Ngwaba. Muslim. Survey needed.
GUDUF (GUDUPE, AFKABIYE) [GDF] 21,300 in all countries (1963). Borno State, Gwoza LGA, mainly in Gava, 11'6" N, 13'46" E; Cikide and Guduf. Also in Cameroon. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.4, Mandara Proper, Glavda. Dialects: CIKIDE (CHIKIDE), GUDUF, GAVA (YAGHWATADAXA, YAWOTATAXA), CINENI. 56% lexical similarity with Hedi, 50% with Lamang and Mabas. Closely related to Glavda. Hedi speakers have 35% intelligibility of Guduf. Wolff (1971) separates Guduf from Gevoko and Glavda. Cineni may be a separate language. Bible portions 1966. Survey needed.
GUN-GBE (GBE, GOUN, GUN, GU, EGUN, GUGBE, ALADA, ALADA-GBE, GUN-ALADA) [GUW] 500,000 in all countries (1991 UBS); 320,000 in Benin (1993 Johnstone). Lagos State, Badagry LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Kwa, Left Bank, Gbe, Aja. Bible 1923-1972. NT 1892-1919. Bible portions 1886-1910. Work in progress.
GURMANA [GRC] 3,000 (1989). Niger State, Shiroro LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Baushi-Gurmana. Basa-Gurmana (Koromba) may be a dialect. Survey needed.
GWA [GWB] 1,000 or fewer (1971). Bauchi State, Toro LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Jarawan, Nigerian. Related to Lame. Survey needed.
GWAMHI-WURI (LYASE, LYASE-NE) [BGA] 8,000 (1973 SIL). Kebbi State, Wasagu LGA, Danko-Maga area, and Niger State, Magama LGA, Dusai and Kwimu. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Duka. Dialects: GWAMHI (GWAMFANCI, GWAMFI, ABAANGI, BANGA, BANGANCI, BANGAWA), WURI (WURANCI, WURAWA). 57% lexical similarity with Puku-Geeri-Keri-Wipsi, 47% with Duka, 43% with Lela. 'Bangawa' is the Hausa name for the people, 'Banganci' for the language; 'Lyase' means 'mother tongue'. The two dialects have slight lexical and tonal differences. Many Gwamfawa are assimilating to Lela culture and language, while the Wurawa are assimilating to Hausa. The Gwamfawa are around Danko and the Wurawa around Maga. Migrants are in Niger State. Survey needed.
GWANDARA (KWANDARA) [GWN] 30,000 (1973 SIL). Niger State, Suleija LGA; Federal Capital Territory; Kaduna State, Kachia; Plateau State, Keffi, Lafia, Nassarawa, and Akwanga LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.1. Dialects: KARASHI, GWANDARA CENTRAL, GWANDARA WESTERN (KORO), GWANDARA SOUTHERN (KYAN KYAR), GWANDARA EASTERN (TONI), GWANDARA GITATA. Traditional religion, Muslim.
GWOMU (GWOMO, GOMU, MOO) [GWG] Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, northeast of Karim Lamido town, off the Bambuka to Karim-Lamido road, close to Gomu Mountain. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Jen. In the Bikwin ethnic cluster. Agriculturalists, animal husbandry, fishermen. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
HAM (HYAM, HUM, JABA, JABBA, JEBA) [JAB] 100,000 (1994 UBS). Kaduna State, Kachia and Jema'a LGA's; Plateau State, Keffi LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Western, Northwestern, Jaba. Dialects: HAM (HYAM, JABA), CORI (CHORI), SHAMANG (SAMBAN), ZHIRE (KENYI). Hyam, Cori, Shamang, and Zhire may be separate languages. Traditional religion. Bible portions 1921-1923. Work in progress.
HAUSA (HAUSAWA, HAOUSSA, ABAKWARIGA, MGBAKPA, HABE, KADO) [HUA] 18,525,000 in Nigeria, 20.9% of the population (1991 SIL); 3,250,000 in Niger; 23,500 in Cameroon; 9,600 in Togo (1991); 500 in Burkina Faso (1991); 418,000 in Sudan (1993); 4,000 in Congo (1993); 22,000,000 in all countries, first language speakers (1991); 38,000,000 first and second lang uage speakers (1995 WA). Spoken as a first language in large areas of Sokoto, Kaduna, Katsina, Kano and Bauchi states, and in Niger. Spoken as a second language in the northern half of Nigeria. Also in Chad, Benin, Ghana. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.1. Dialects: EASTERN HAUSA, WESTERN HAUSA, NORTH HAUSA. Both Roman and Ajami scripts are used. Official language in the north. Barikanchi is a Hausa pidgin used in military barracks. There is a pidgin or market Hausa. Subdialects of Eastern Hausa: Kano, Katagum, Hadejiya; of Western Hausa: Sokoto, Katsina, Gobirawa, Adarawa, Kebbawa, Zamfarawa; of North Hausa: Arewa, Arawa. Abakwariga is a subgroup. Grammar. Dictionary. National language. Typology: SVO. Muslim, traditional religion (Maguzawa), Christian. Braille Bible portions. Bible 1932-1980. NT 1880, in press (1993). Bible portions 1857-1988.
HEDI (HIDE, HYIDE, XADI, XEDI, GRA) [TUR] 9,000 in Nigeria (1992); 10,000 in all countries (1982 SIL). Borno State, Gwoza LGA; Adamawa State, Michika LGA; along the Cameroon border, across from Tourou; part of one village. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.4, Lamang. Dialect: TUR (TURU, TOUROU, FTOUR). Little education. 1 primary school. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: guinea corn, beans, millet. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Work in progress.
HWANA (HWONA, HONA, HUNA, WHANA, TUFTERA, FITERYA, KURTIGA) [HWO] 32,000 (1992). Adamawa State, Gombi LGA, and some in Song and Hong LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.1, Eastern. The neighboring Bura consider them to be conservative. 'Tuftera' is their name for their language, 'Fiterya' for themselves. Four divisions: Hwana Guyaku, Hwana Tawa, Ngithambara, and Hwana Barni. Speakers use Fulfulde, Hausa, Kilba, and Gaanda as second languages. Agriculturalists, animal husbandry: cattle, goats; hunters. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim.
IBIBIO [IBB] 3,186,000 or 3.6% of the population (1991 SIL). Akwa Ibom State, Itu, Uyo, Etinan, Ikot Abasi, Ikono, Ekpe-Atai, Uruan, Onna, Nsit-Ubium, and Mkpat Enin LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, East. Dialects: ENYONG, NKARI. Closely related to Efik. Efik is decreasing in use as literary language. It is the main trade language of Akwa Ibom State. Trade language. Christian. Work in progress.
IBUORO [IBR] 5,000 or more (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Itu and Ikono LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, East. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
ICEN (ICHEN, ITCHEN, ETKYWAN, ETEKWE~, KYATO, KENTU, NYIDU) [ICH] 40,000 to 50,000 (1992). Taraba State, Takum, Sardauna, Bali, and part of Wukari LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Kpan-Icen, Icen. Related to Kpan. Some speak Hausa as second language. Christian, traditional religion, Muslim.
ICEVE-MACI (ICHEVE, OCHEBE, OCHEVE, OCEVE, UTSE, UTSER, UTSEU) [BEC] 5,000 in all countries (SIL). Cross River State, Obudu LGA. Also in Cameroon. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Tivoid. Dialects: MACI (MATCHI, OLITI, OLITHI, OLIT, KWAYA, OLITI-AKWAYA, MOTOM, MOTOMO), BACHEVE (BECHEVE, BECHERE, BEHEVE, BACEVE). Maci and Bacheve have 80% lexical similarity. Work in progress.
IDERE [IDE] 5,000 or more (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Itu LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
IDOMA [IDO] 600,000 (1991 UBS). Benue State, Otukpo and Okpokwu LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Idomoid, Akweya, Etulo-Idoma, Idoma. Dialects: IDOMA CENTRAL (OTURKPO, AKPOTO), IDOMA WEST, IDOMA SOUTH (IGUMALE, IGWAALE, IJIGBAM). Dialect cluster. Used in radio, television, adult and primary education. National language. Bible in press (1995). NT 1970. Bible portions 1927-1957.
IDUN (LUNGU, UNGU, ADONG) [LDB] 10,000 (1972 Barrett). Kaduna State, Jema'a LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Western, Northwestern, Koro. Different from Idon. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
IGALA (IGARA) [IGL] 800,000 (1989 UBS). Benue State, Ankpa, Idah, Dekina, and Bassa LGA's; Edo State, Agbazko and Oshimili LGA's; Anambra State, Anambra LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Defoid, Yoruboid, Igala. Dialects: EBU, IDAH, ANKPA, IBAJI. Used in initial primary education. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Bible 1970. NT 1935-1948. Bible portions 1924-1958.
IGBO (IBO) [IGR] 17,000,000 or 16.6% of the population (1995 WA). Abia State, Anambra State, Igbo-Eze, Nsukka, Isi Uzo, Igbo Etiti, Uzo Uwani, Anambra, Udi, Enugu, Nkanu, Eze Agu, Awka, Njikoko, Awgu, Onitsha, Aguatu, Idemili, Nnewi, Ihala LGA's; Imo State; Rivers State, Ikwerre-Etche, Bonny, and Ahoada LGA's; and Edo State, Oshimili, Anoicha, Ika, and Ndokwa LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Igboid, Igbo. Dialects: OWERRI (ISUAMA), ONITSHA, UMUAHIA (OHUHU), ORLU, NGWA, AFIKPO, NSA, OGUTA, ANIOCHA, ECHE, EGBEMA. 30 dialects vary in inherent intelligibility. A standard literary form is developing from the dialect of Owerri and Umuahia. The main trade language of Anambra and Imo States; the official language in the southeast. Used for government notices, radio, television, mother tongue authored literature. Roman script is used. National language. Christian, traditional religion. Braille code available. Bible 1906-1988. NT 1900-1981. Bible portions 1860-1950.
IGUTA (NARAGUTA, ANAGUTA) [NAR] 6,123 (1990). Plateau State, Bassa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera. Iguta is the language, Unaguta a speaker, Anaguta or Naragutawa the people. Survey needed.
IJO, CENTRAL-WESTERN (IZON, IZO, UZO) [IJC] 338,700 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin); 100,000 in Kolokuma (1991 UBS); 1,770,000 all Ijo languages, 2% of the population (1991 SIL). Rivers State, Yenagoa and Sagbama LGA's; Delta State, Burutu, Warri, and Ughelli LGA's; Ondo State, Ikale, Ilaje Ese-Odo LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Ijo, Central, Central Western. Dialects: IDUWINI, OGULAGHA, OPOROZA (GBARANMATU), AROGBO, EGBEMA, OLODIAMA EAST, OLODIAMA WEST, FURUPAGHA, KABO (PATANI), KUMBO, TARAKIRI EAST, TARAKIRI WEST, MEIN (NORTHWEST IZON), TUOMO, OPEREMOR, SEIMBRI, OGBOIN, OIAKIRI, OPOROMA, APOI, GBANRAIN, KOLUKUMA (KOLOKUMA, NORTH IZON), BUMO (SOUTH CENTRAL IZON), EKPETIAMA, IKIBIRI, BOMA, OGBE IJO. The Ijo (Ijaw) group is made up of seven separate languages. Central-Western Ijo has about 30 inherently intelligible dialects. The Kolokuma dialect is used in radio, television, and adult and primary education. Bible portions 1912-1924. Work in progress.
IJO, SOUTHEAST (IJAW, BRASS IJO) [IJO] 71,500 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin); 66,600 Nembe, 4,900 Akassa. Rivers State, Brass LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Ijo, Eastern, Southeastern. Dialects: NEMBE (NIMBE), AKASSA (AHASA). A separate language within the Ijo cluster. Bible 1956. NT 1927. Bible portions 1886-1943.
IKA [IKK] Delta State, Ika and Orhionmwon LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Igboid, Igbo. A separate language in the Igbo language cluster. Survey needed.
IKO [IKI] 5,000 or more (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Ikot Abasi LGA, 3 villages. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, West. Culturally they consider themselves Obolo, but they cannot use Obolo literature. Listed separately by Crozier and Blench 1992.
IKWERE (IKWERRE, IKWERRI) [IKW] 200,000 probably (1973 SIL). Rivers State, Ikwerre, Port Harcourt, and Obio LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Igboid, Igbo. Dialects: OBIOPO-MGBU-TOLU, OGBAKIRI, EMOWHUA, NDELE, ELELE, OMERELU, EGBEDA, ALUU, IGWURUTA, IBAA, ISIOKPO, OMAGWA. Considerable local interest in language and literacy. Important language. A separate language in the Igbo language cluster.
ILUE [ILE] 5,000 or less (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Oron LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Diminishing in size. Survey needed.
IRIGWE (IREGWE, AREGWE, RIGWE, NNERIGWE, KWOLL, KWAL, MIANGO, NYANGO, IDAFAN, KWAN, NKARIGWE) [IRI] 40,000 (1985 UBS). Plateau State, Bassa and Birikin-Ladi LGA's; Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Central, South-Central. The language is Nkarigwe or Rigwe, the people are Nnerigwe or Miyango. Bible portions 1923-1935.
ISEKIRI (ITSEKIRI, ISHEKIRI, SHEKIRI, JEKRI, CHEKIRI, IWERE, IRHOBO, WARRI, ISELEMA-OTU, SELEMO) [ITS] 510,000 (1991 UBS). Delta State, Warri, Bomadi, and Ethiope LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Defoid, Yoruboid, Edekiri. Closely related to Yoruba. Used in initial primary education. NT 1985. Bible portions 1974-1985.
ISOKO ("IGABO", "SOBO", BIOTU) [ISO] 321,000 (1993 Johnstone). Delta State, Isoko and Ndokwa LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Southwestern. "Sobo" and "Igabo" are offensive names. A regionally important language. Used in initial primary education. Bible 1977. NT 1970. Bible portions 1920-1932.
ITO [ITW] 5,000 or more (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Akamkpa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
ITU MBON UZO (ITU MBUZO) [ITM] 5,000 or more (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Ikono LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, East. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
IYAYU (IDOANI) [IYA] 9,979 (1963). Ondo State, one-quarter of Idoani town. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Northwestern, Osse. Listed separately from Uhami in Crozier & Blench 1992. The people are sometimes called 'Idoani'. Survey needed.
IZERE (IZAREK, FIZERE, FEZERE, FESEREK, AFIZAREK, AFIZARE, AFUSARE, JARI, JARAWA, JARAWAN DUTSE, HILL JARAWA, JOS-ZARAZON) [FIZ] 50,000 (1993 SIL). Southern dialects: Plateau State, Birikin Ladi LGA; Northern dialects: Plateau State, Jos LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA; and Kaduna State, Jema'a LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Central, South-Central. Dialects: NORTHWEST IZERE, NORTHEAST IZERE, SOUTH IZERE, GANANG-FAISHANG. The language is called 'Izarek', 'Izere', or 'Izer'; a speaker 'Bajari', the people 'Jarawa', 'Afizarek', 'Afizere', 'Afudelek', 'Fizere', 'Feserek', 'Fezere', 'Hill Jarawa', 'Jarawan Dutse'. 'Jos-Zarazon' is the name of indigenous speakers in Jos. The Fobor dialect is prestigious, and is used on the radio. Northwest Izere subdialects: Fobor (Fobur) and Shere; Northeast Izere: Fedare (Zandi, Zendi), Jarawan Kogi (Maigemu), and Fursom (Fursum); South Izere: Forom (Ichen); Ganang and Faishang. Firan is a separate language. 25% to 50% literate. Bible portions 1940. Work in progress.
IZI-EZAA-IKWO-MGBO [IZI] 593,000 (1973 SIL) including 200,000 Izi, 180,000 Ezaa, 150,000 Ikwo, 63,000 Mgbo. Anambra State, Abakaliki, Ezza, and Ishielu LGA's; Benue State, Okpokwu LGA; Abia State, Ohaozara LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Igboid, Igbo. Dialects: IZI (IZZI), EZAA (EZA), IKWO, MGBO (NGBO). Dialect cluster within the Igbo language cluster. Braille NT. NT 1980.
IZORA (CHOKOBO, COKOBO, CIKOBU, CHIKOBO, COKOBANCI, AZORA) [CBO] 425 (1936; 1953 H.D. Gunn). Plateau State, Bassa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera. The language is Izora or Cokobanci; a speaker is Bacokobi; the speakers are Cokobawa or Ndazora. Survey needed.
JANJI (ANAFEJANZI, JENJI, TIJANJI, AJANJI) [JNI] 360 (1950). Plateau State, Bassa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera. Tijanji is the language, Ujanji a speaker, Ajanji the people. Survey needed.
JARA (JERA) [JAF] 40,000 (1973). Borno State, Biu LGA; Bauchi State, Akko LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.1, Western. Different from Jera, which is Benue-Congo. Survey needed.
JARAWA (JARANCHI, JAR, JARA, JARAWAN KOGI) [JAR] 150,000 (1978 MARC), including 20,000 Bankal, 19,000 Gingwak. Bauchi, Adamawa, and Plateau States. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Jarawan, Nigerian. Dialects: BANKAL (BANKALA, BARANCI), LIGRI, KANAM, BOBAR, GINGWAK (GWAK, JARAWAN BUNUNU, JARACIN KASA). Dialect cluster. Most men speak Hausa but most women understand little Hausa. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1940. Survey needed.
JERA (JEERE) [JER] 23,000 (1973 SIL); including 2,350 Buji (1963), 2,350 Gusu (1936), 4,500 Jere (1936), 2,000 Ribina (1971), 850 Gurrum (1936). Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA; Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera. Dialects: BUJI (EBOZE, ANABEZE), GUSU (GUSAWA, GUSSUM, GESAWA, GUZAWA, ISANGA, ASANGA, ANIBAU, ANOSANGOBARI), JERE (JERIYAWA, EZELLE, AZELLE, JENGRE), RIBINA (REBINA, BUNU, IBUNU, NARABUNU, ANORUBUNA, GURRUM, ANEGOROM). One dialect is Ezelle, a speaker is Ozelle or Bajere; the speakers are Azelle or Jarawa. Another dialect is Eboze, a speaker is Unabeze, speakers are Anabeze. Distinct from Jara, which is Chadic. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
JIBU (JIBAWA, JIBANCI, JIBANCHI, JUBAWA) [JIB] 25,000 (1987 SIL). Taraba State, Gashaka LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Jukun. Dialects: GAYAM, GARBABI, JIBU KOINE. Speakers use Jukun as second language. Some living near the main roads can also speak Fulfulde and Hausa. Few have finished secondary school. The Jibu living in the Gashaka Mts. are called 'Gumka'. 5% to 15% literate. Mountain slope, plains. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Christian. Bible portions 1973. Work in progress.
JILBE (ZOULBOU) [JIE] 2,000 or fewer (1995). Borno State, Jilbe town, on the border of Cameroon across from the town of Dabanga. 1 village only. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, B, B.1. Speakers of other Kotoko languages (in Cameroon and Chad) consistently report low intelligibility with Jilbe. May be the same as Ziziliveken. Muslim. Survey needed.
JU [JUU] 900 (1993). Bauchi State, Bauchi LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.3, Guruntum. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
JUKUN TAKUM (DIYI, NJIKUM, JUKUN) [JBU] Second language speakers in Nigeria are 40,000 (1979 UBS); no first language speakers in Nigeria. 1,700 first language speakers, and 6,000 second language speakers in Cameroon (1986 R. Breton). Taraba State, Takum, Sardauna, and Bali LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Kpan-Icen, Kpan. Dialects: TAKUM, DONGA (AKPANZHI). The name 'Njikum' is preferred in Cameroon. Formerly founders of the Kwararafa Kingdom, which existed from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Trade language. Christian, traditional religion, Muslim. NT 1980. Bible portions 1918.
JUKUN WURKUM (WURKUM, KUKULIM, KONA JUKUN) [JUI] Taraba State, Bali, Jalingo, Karim Lamido LGA's; Plateau State, Shendam and Langtang LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Unclassified. In the Jukun language cluster. Traditional religion. Bible portions 1927-1950. Survey needed.
KALABARI [IJN] 257,764 (1989 Jenewari). Rivers State, Degema and Bonny LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Ijo, Eastern, Northeastern, Ibani-Okrika-Kalabari. A dialect cluster within the Ijo language cluster. Okrika and Ibani are closely related. NT in press (1996). Bible portions 1980-1991. Work in progress.
KAM (YIMWOM, NYIWOM, NYINGWOM) [KDX] 5,000 (1993). Taraba State, Bali LGA, 18 villages between Mayo Kam and Garba Chede. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Kam. Speakers use Hausa or Fulfulde as second language. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
KAMKAM (BUNGNU, BUNU, BUNGUN, GBUNHU, KAKABA, KABBA) [BGU] 1,300 in all countries (1982 SIL). Taraba State, Sardauna LGA, Kamkam town, and into Cameroon, on the Mambila Plateau. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Mambiloid, Mambila-Konja, Magu-Kamkam-Kila. Several minor dialects. Speakers use Fulfulde, Hausa, and Mambila as second languages. Agriculturalists. Muslim (mainly), traditional religion. Survey needed.
KAMO (KAMU) [KCQ] 3,000 (SIL). Bauchi State, Biliri-Kaltungo and Akko LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Waja, Awak. Typologically closer to Awak (no singular/plural noun suffixes). Survey needed.
KAMUKU [KAU] 30,000 or more (1995 S. and S. Dettweiler). Niger State, Rafi and Mariga LGA's; Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kamuku. Dialects: CINDA (UCINDA, JINDA, MAJINDA, TEGINA, MAKANGARA), REGI, KUKI. 90% to 95% lexical similarity among the three dialects, and most speakers say they can easily understand the other dialects. Clans are Uregi, Urogo, Tiyar (Kuki), Ucinda (Jinda), and Ushana. Hausa is the second language. 'Laka', or 'Kamuku Laka', are Hausa-speaking ethnic Kamuku. 10% literate. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian.
KAMWE (HIGI, HIJI, HIGGI, VACAMWE) [HIG] 300,000 (1992). Adamawa State, Michika LGA, in the Mandara Mts. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.3. Dialects: NKAFA, BAZZA (DAKWA), SINA, FUTU, TILI PTE. Fali of Kiria may be a dialect. Closely related to Psikye and Hya of Cameroon. Wula may be a dialect of Kamwe or Psikye. Primary schools. People in lowland towns have more education. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: guinea corn, peanuts, beans, sweet potato, millet; animal husbandry; hunters. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. NT 1975. Bible portions 1972.
KANURI, MANGA (MANGA, KANOURI, KANOURY) [KBY] 200,000 in Nigeria (1993); 350,000 in Niger (1995); 550,000 in both countries. 3,700,000 all Kanuri in Nigeria (1993). Mainly Yobe State, some in Jigawa and Bauchi states. The main center in Niger is at Yerwa. Nilo-Saharan, Saharan, Western, Kanuri. Trade language. Muslim. Work in progress.
KANURI, YERWA (KANOURI, BERIBERI, BORNU, KANOURY) [KPH] 3,000,000 or more in Nigeria (1985 Gunnemark and Kenrick); 100,000 or more in Chad (1985); 56,500 in Cameroon (1982); 50,000 in Niger (1991); 195,000 in Nigeria (1993 Johnstone); 3,500,000 in all countries (1987 UBS); 3,628,000 all Kanuri in Nigeria, 4.1% of the population (1991 SIL). Borno State, Borno, Nguru, Geidam, Kukawa, Damaturu, Kaga, Konduga, Maiduguri, Mongumo, Fune, Gujba, Ngala, Bama, Fika, Gwoza LGA's; Kano State, Hadejia LGA. Also in Sudan. Nilo-Saharan, Saharan, Western, Kanuri. Dialects: DAGARA, KAGA (KAGAMA), SUGURTI, LARE (LERE), KWAYAM, NJESKO, KABARI (KUVURI), NGAZAR, GUVJA, MAO, TEMAGERI, FADAWA, MOVAR (MOBBER, MOBER, MAVAR). Lukas says Kwayam and Movar are not understood by other Kanuri. All can understand the Maiduguri dialect. Closest to Manga Kanuri and Kanembu. Ajami script. Used in radio, television, adult education. The people of Ngala no longer speak a Kotoko language. National language. Typology: SOV. Muslim. NT in press (1995). Bible portions 1949.
KAPYA [KLO] Taraba State, Takum LGA, at Kapya. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Yukuben-Kuteb. Close to Kutep, but listed separately in Crozier and Blench. Survey needed.
KAREKARE (KARAIKARAI, KARAI KARAI, KEREKERE, KERRIKERRI) [KAI] 80,000 to 100,000 (1995 NBTT). Bauchi State, Gamawa and Misau LGA's; Borno State, Fika LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Bole, Karekare. Dialects: JALALUM (WEST KAREKARE), PAKARO (NORTH KAREKARE), NGWAJUM (EAST KAREKARE). Survey needed.
KIONG (AKAYON, AKOIYANG, OKONYONG, OKOYONG, IYONIYONG) [KKM] Cross River State, Odukpani and Akampka LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Kiong-Korop. Spoken only by elderly people; the younger generation speaks Efik. For several generations before now the people were bilingual in Kiong and Efik. Nearly extinct.
KIR-BALAR (KIR, KIRR) [KKR] 3,050 (1993). Bauchi State, Bauchi LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.3, Boghom. Dialects: KIR, BALAR. May be intelligible with Boghom. Muslim. Survey needed.
KOANA (KANA, KHANA, OGONI) [KEH] 200,000 (1989). Rivers State, Khana, Gokana, and Oyigbo LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Ogoni, East. Dialects: TAI, NORTH KHANA, SOUTH KHANA. Closely related to Gokana, Eleme. Important district language. Bible 1968. NT 1961. Bible portions 1930-1935.
KOMA (KUMA, GAUNU) [KMY] 32,000 in Nigeria (1989); 3,000 in Cameroon (1984 SIL); 35,000 in all countries. Adamawa State, Ganye and Fufore LGA's, Koma Vomni, Alantika Mountains. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Duru, Voko-Dowayo, Vere-Dowayo, Vere-Gimme, Vere. Dialects: KOMA NDERA, KOMA DAMTI. 3 subdialects: Koma Vomni, Koma Beiya, and Koma Damti. Vomni and Beiya speakers barely understand each other, but both understand Damti. It is unclear how these 3 are related to the 2 dialects named above. 7 primary schools. Low literacy rate. Some speakers understand Hausa, especially those on the plains, but the majority speak only Koma. Different from Koma of Ethiopia and Sudan. Mountain slope, plains. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim.
KONA (JUKUN KONA, JIBI, JIBA) [JUO] 2,000 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Taraba State, Wukari and Karim Lamido LGA's; Plateau State, Langtang and Wase LGA's; Bauchi State, Alkaleri and Akko LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Kororofa. In Kororofa language cluster. Traditional religion. Bible portions 1927.
KORO IJA (KORO AFIKI) [VKI] Federal Capital Territory, south of Abuja. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Different from Koro Zuba, Koro of Lafia, Begbere-Ejar, or Ujijili. 'Koro' is used as a cover term for several languages. Survey needed.
KORO ZUBA [VKZ] Federal Capital Territory, near Zuba. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Different from Koro Ija, Koro of Lafia, Begbere-Ejar, or Ujijili. 'Koro' is used as a cover term for several languages. Survey needed.
KOROP (ODODOP, DUROP, DYUROP, ERORUP) [KRP] 12,500 in all countries (1982 SIL). Cross River State, Odukpani and Akampka LGA's, and in Cameroon. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Kiong-Korop. Speakers are reported to mostly be bilingual in Efik. Survey needed.
KPASAM (PASSAM, KPASHAM, NYISAM, 'BALO) [PBN] 15,000 (1992). Adamawa State, Numan LGA, Kpasham town, on the Numan-Jalingo road. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Yandang. Hausa, Fulfulde, and Bacama are used as second languages. There are primary schools in the villages, and speakers want to send their children to school. One junior secondary school. Agriculturalists. Christian, traditional religion, Muslim. Survey needed.
KUDU-CAMO (KUDA-CHAMO, KUDAWA) [KOV] 2,000 to 4,000 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Bauchi State, Ningi LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera. Dialects: KUDU (KUDA), CAMO (CHAMO). It is related to Butu-Ningi. The language is reported to be dying out. A dialect cluster. Survey needed.
KUGAMA (KUGAMMA, WEGAM, YAMALE, YAMALO) [KOW] 5,000 or more (1995). Adamawa State, Fufore LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Yandang. Speakers use Hausa, or other nearby languages as second languages. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
KUGBO [KES] 2,000 (1973 SIL). Rivers State, Brass LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Central Delta, Kugbo.
KUKELE (UKELE, BAKELE) [KEZ] 95,000 (1989). Cross River State, Ogoja LGA; Anambra State, Abakaliki LGA; Benue State, Okpokwu and Oju LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Central, North-South, Koring-Kukele, Kukele. Dialects: MTEZI, UGBALA, ITEEJI. Four dialects in the north, three in the south, besides those named. NT 1979. Bible portions 1974.
KULERE (TOF, KOROM BOYE) [KUL] 15,570 (1990). Plateau State, Bokkos LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.4, Ron Proper. Different from Kulere of Côte d'Ivoire, a trade dialect of Senoufo. Survey needed.
KULUNG (BAMBUR, KULUNO, BAKULUNG, BAKULU, BAKULI, KULU, KUKULUNG, WO, WURKUM) [BBU] 15,000 (1973 SIL). Taraba State, Karim Lamido and Wukari LGA's, west of the Kwanchi, south of the Piya. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Jarawan, Nigerian. 4 clans: Bambur, Balassa, Banyam, Bamingun. Different from Kulung of Chad which is Chadic. Similar in culture to Piya, Kodei, Kwanchi, Pelang, and Pero. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1950. Survey needed.
KUMBA (SATE, YOFO, ISARO) [KSM] Adamawa State, Mayo Belwa and Fufore LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Mumuye. Speakers use Fulfulde and Hausa as second language. No schools. Agriculturalists, animal husbandry: cows. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
KUPTO (KUTTO) [KPA] 3,000 or less (1995). Bauchi State, Dukku LGA; Bakpga. Borno, Gujba states, 2 villages. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Tangale, Tangale Proper. Survey needed.
KURAMA (TIKURAMI, AKURUMI, BAGWAMA, AKURMI, AZUMU, BUKURUMI) [KRH] 11,300 (1949). Kaduna State, Saminaka and Ikara LGA's; Kano State, Tudun Waya LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Kauru. Tukurami is the language, Bukurumi a speaker, Akurumi the people. Survey needed.
KUTEP (KUTEB, KUTEV, MBARIKE, ZUMPER, "JOMPRE", ATI) [KUB] 30,000 to 50,000 in Nigeria (1992); 1,400 in Cameroon (1986 R. Breton). Taraba State, Takum LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Yukuben-Kuteb. Dialects: JENUWA, LISSAM, FIKYU, KUNABE, KENTIN. Fikyu has subdialects. "Jompre" is an offensive name. Many speakers use Hausa or Jukun as second language. Christian, traditional religion. NT 1986-1995.
LAGWAN ((KOTOKO-LOGONE, LOGONE, LAGWANE (LAGOUANE))) [KOT] 25,000 in Nigeria (1993); 38,500 in all countries (1982 SIL). Borno State, Dikwa and Ngala LGA's. Also in Cameroon and Chad. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, B, B.1, Kotoko Proper. Dialects: LOGONE-BIRNI, LOGONE-GANA (KOTOKO-GANA). Related to Afade, Mser, Malgbe, Maslam, and Mpade. Muslim.
LAKA (LAKKA, LAU, LAO HABE, GODOGODO) [LAK] 5,000 or more (1995). Taraba State, Karim Lamido and Yola LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Mbum-Day, Mbum, Unclassified. Different than Laka (Kabba Laka) of Central African Republic and Chad, or from Karang (Laka) of Cameroon and Chad. Related to Karang. Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
LALA-ROBA (GWORAM) [LLA] 46,000 (1993). Adamawa State, Gombi LGA, and Borno State. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Yungur, Yungur-Roba. Dialects: LALA (LALLA), ROBA (ROBBA). Speakers use Fulfulde, Hausa, and Gaanda as second languages. Hunters (January to April); agriculturalists (May to December): peanuts, guinea corn, bambara nuts, tiger nuts; animal husbandry: goats, chickens, sheep, dogs. Traditional religion, Christian.
LAMANG (LAAMANG, GBUHWE, WAHA) [HIA] 40,000 (1993). Borno State, Gwoza LGA; Adamawa State, Michika LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.4, Lamang. Dialects: NORTH LAAMANG, CENTRAL LAAMANG, SOUTH LAAMANG. 64% lexical similarity with Hedi and Mabas, 50% with Gevoko. Speakers have 37% intelligibility of Mabas, 31% of Hedi. Subdialects of North Lamang: Zaladeva (Alataghwa), Dzuba, Leghva (Luhuva), Gwoza-Wakane; of Central Lamang: Hedkala (Hidkala, Xidkala, Hitkala, Hitkalanchi), Waga (Waha, Woga, Wagga), Dlige; of South Lamang: Ghudavan. 25% to 50% literate. Bible portions 1992. Work in progress.
LAME [BMA] 2,000 (1973 SIL). Bauchi State, Toto LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Jarawan, Nigerian. Dialects: BAMBARO (BOMBARO, BOMBERAWA, BUNBERAWA, BAMBARA, BAMBURO, MBARU), GURA (AGARI, AGBIRI). Dialect cluster. Distinct from Peve (Lame) of Cameroon and Chad. Survey needed.
LAMJA [LDH] Adamawa State, Mayo Belwa LGA, around Ganglamja (Lamja Mt.), near the road between Mayo Belwa and Tola. 43 villages or more. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Dakoid. Dialects: DANSA, LAMJA. Related to Chamba Daka. 8 primary schools. Low literacy rate. Agriculturalists: guinea corn, peanuts, maize, rice, cassava; hunters (dry season). Muslim, traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
LAMNSO' (NSO, NSO', NSAW, NSHO', LAMSO, LAMNSOK, BANSO, BANSO', BANSAW, PANSO) [NSO] In Cameroon: 125,000 (1987 SIL). Taraba State, Sardauna LGA, in settlements sometimes mixed with speakers of other languages. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Wide Grassfields, Narrow Grassfields, Ring, East. Speakers use Fulfulde as second language. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1990.
LARU (LARAWA, LARANCHI, LARO) [LAN] 5,000 (1995 Ross Jones SIM). Niger State, Borgu LGA, on the banks of the Niger River, Karabonde, Monnai, Leshigbe, Luma, Sansanni, Shagunu villages. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kainji Lake. They are reported to be assimilating to Bisã language and culture. Muslim. Survey needed.
LEELAU (LELAU, MUNGA LELAU) [LDK] Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, between Bambuka and Karim-Lamido town, near Lake Mungah. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Jen. In the Munga dialect cluster, Bikwin ethnic cluster. Clan names: Tanyam, Munzigah, Brem, Gopi. Agriculturalists, animal husbandry, fishermen. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
LELA (LALAWA, CLELA, KOLELA, CALA-CALA, CHILELA, CHILALA, DAKARKARI, DAKAKARI, DAKKARKARI) [DRI] 90,000 or more (1993 Dettweiler SIL). Eastern Kebbi State, Zuru, Sakaba, and Donko-Wasagu LGA's; Niger State, Rijau LGA; and migrants farther south. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Duka. Dialects: LILA (ZURU, SENCHI, SOUTHERN LELA), DABAI (CENTRAL LELA), RIBAH, ADOMA (AROMA, ROMA-NA, ROMA, YELMO, NORTHERN LELA). Lexical similarity among dialects at Rade, Ribah, Dabai, and Senchi were between 93% and 98%. 55% lexical similarity with Duka, 54% with the Fakai cluster, 47% with Gwamhi-Wuri, 20% with Acipa. The orthography needs revision. Hausa is used as second language. 'Dakarkari' is the Hausa name for the people. 'Lela' is their own name for people and language. Radio broadcasts. Savannah. Stony hills, plains. Agriculturalists:: guinea corn, millet, maize, acha, peanuits, beans, sugar cane, cotton; brewing alcohol, blacksmiths, mat makers, smelting, potters. Altitude: 800 to 1600 feet. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1931. Work in progress.
LEMORO (LIMORO, LIMORRO, EMORO, ANEMORO, ANOWURU) [LDJ] 2,950 (1936; 1953 H.D. Gunn). Plateau State, Bassa LGA; Bauchi State, Toro LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera. The language is Emoro, a speaker is Limoro, the speakers are Anemoro. Survey needed.
LENYIMA (ANYIMA, INYIMA) [LDG] Cross River State, Obubra LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Mbembe-Legbo, Legbo. The people are Anyima, the language Lenyima. Survey needed.
LEYIGHA (ASIGA, ASSIGA, AYIGHA, AYIGA, YIGHA) [AYI] 10,000 (1989). Cross River State, Obubra LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Mbembe-Legbo, Legbo. The people are called 'Ayigha', the language 'Leyigha'. Survey needed.
LIBO (LIBBO, KAN, KAAN) [LDL] 10,000 (1992). Adamawa State, Guyuk, Song, and Numan LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Yungur, Libo. Most adults use Hausa, Fulfulde, Mbula-Bwaza, Tambo, or Kanakuru as second language. No primary schools in the area. Many desire education. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
LIJILI (LIGILI, MIJILI, MIGILI, MEGILI, KORO LAFIA, KORO OF LAFIA) [MGI] 50,000 (1985 UBS). Plateau State, Awe and Lafia LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Southern. 'Ligili' or 'Lijili' is the name of the language; 'Migili' of the people. NT 1986.
LIMBUM (WIMBUM) [LIM] A few in Nigeria (1992 Crozier & Blench); 73,000 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 73,000 or more in both countries. Taraba State, Sardauna LGA, Mabila uplands. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Wide Grassfields, Narrow Grassfields, Mbam-Nkam, Nkambe. Work in progress.
LO (LOO, LOH, SHUNHU) [LDO] 8,000 (1992 Crozier and Blench). Bauchi State, Kaltungo LGA; Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, northeast of Karim Lamido town, off the Bambuka to Karim-Lamido road. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Jen. Clan names: Fore (Kyilayo), Bene, Tamu, Bana, Talau, Tadam, Wawa. Agriculturalists, animal husbandry, fishermen. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
LOKO (YAKURR, YAKO, UGEP, LOKE, LUKO, LOKAA) [YAZ] 120,000 (1989). Cross River State, Obubra LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Loko. Dialects: UGEP, NKPANI. Bible portions 1972-1984. Work in progress.
LONGUDA (NUNGUDA, NUNGURABA, NUNGURA, LANGUDA) [LNU] 32,000 (1973 SIL). Adamawa State, Guyuk LGA; Bauchi State, Balanga LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Longuda. Dialects: NYA CERIYA (CIRIMBA), NYA GWANDA (NYUWAR), NYA GUYUWA (GUYUK, PLAIN, TURUBA), NYA DELE, NYA TARIYA (TARABA). Speakers use Hausa, Fulfulde, Kanakuru, Waja, or English as second language. 20% literate in Hausa. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1978. Bible portions 1975.
LOPA (LOPAWA, LUPA, KIRIKJIR, DJIRI) [LOP] 2,000 (1995). Niger State, Borgu LGA, Amboshidi and Tungan Bori, islands in the Niger River; Kebbi State, Yauri LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kainji Lake. Those in Borgu LGA are reported to be assimilating to Bisã language and culture. Survey needed.
LUBILA (LUBILO, KABILA, KABIRE, OJOR, OFOR) [KCC] Cross River State, Akamkpa LGA, at Ojo Nkomba and Ojo Akangba. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Loko. Survey needed.
LUFU [LDQ] Ethnic group: 2,000 to 3,000 (1992). Taraba State, Takum LGA, Lufu and Lufu Jauro. Unclassified. The people now speak Jukun. Culture and religion similar to the Jukun Kapya. Language reported to have been close to Bete and Bibi. One report says the language is mostly spoken only by elders (1992). Former speakers at Arufu near Wukari have lost the language. Christian, traditional religion. Nearly extinct.
MABAS (VEMGO) [VEM] 10,000 in Nigeria (1993); 5,000 or fewer in Cameroon (1984 ALCAM). Adamawa State, Michika LGA, Madagali district. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.4, Lamang. Dialects: VEMGO, VISIK (VIZIK), MABAS. 78% lexical similarity with Hedi, 64% with Lamang, 50% with Gevoko. 56% intelligibility of Lamang, 36% intelligibility of Hedi. Speakers use Fulfulde, Mafa, or Wula (Psikye) as second language. Some speak Hedi. Different from Maba of Chad. 'Maya' may be an alternate name. Pastoralists, agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
MADA (MADDA, YIDDA) [MDA] 100,000 (1993 SIL). Plateau State, Akwanga LGA; Kaduna State, Jema'a LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Western, Southwestern, A. Different from Mada of Cameroon. 25% to 50% literate. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1990. Work in progress.
MAFA (MATAKAM, NATAKAN, BULAHAI, BULA) [MAF] 2,000 in Nigeria (1963); 136,000 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 138,000 in all countries. Borno State, Gwoza LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.5. Dialect: MOFA. Bible 1978, in press (1989). NT 1965. Bible portions 1958-1961.
MÁGHDÌ (WIDALA) [GMD] 2,000 or fewer (1992). Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, a section of the Widala. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Jen. 'Widala' applies to the people. Kholok is also called 'Widala'. Survey needed.
MAK (PANYAM, PANYA, LEEMAK, LEMAK) [PBL] Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, northeast of Karim Lamido town, off the Banbuka to Karim-Lamido road. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Jen. In the Bikwin ethnic cluster. Clan names: Guma, Zidah, Togon, Mungok, Tawok, Tagwam. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
MAMBILA, NIGERIA (MAMBILLA, MABILA, MAMBERE, NOR, NOR TAGBO, LAGUBI, TONGBO, BANG) [MZK] 99,000 (1993). Taraba State, Sardauna LGA, Mambila Plateau. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Mambiloid, Mambila-Konja, Mambila. Dialect: TEP. Speakers use Fulfulde or English as second language. Close to Mambila of Cameroon, but distinct. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. NT 1977. Bible portions 1973.
MARGHI CENTRAL (MARGHI, MARGI) [MAR] 200,000 all Marghi languages (1989 UBS). Borno State, Askira-Uba and Damboa LGA's; Aamawa State, Mubi and Michika LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.2, 2. Dialects: LASSA (BABUL), GULAK (DZER). In the Marghi language cluster. Typology: SVO. NT 1987. Bible portions 1940-1961.
MARGHI SOUTH [MFM] Borno State, Askira-Uba LGA; Adamawa State, Mubi and Michika LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.2, 2. Dialects: WAMDIU, HILDI. Survey needed.
MASHI [JMS] Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Unclassified.
MAWA [WMA] Ethnic population is small (Shimizu). Bauchi State, Toro LGA, possibly Mara village. Unclassified. Apparently different from the Mawa language of Chad, which is Chadic. Extinct.
MBAI (SARA MBAI) [MYB] A few in Nigeria (1995); 8,300 in CAR (1996); 100,000 in all countries (1978 UBS). Borno State. Mainly in Chad. Nilo-Saharan, Central Sudanic, West, Bongo-Bagirmi, Sara-Bagirmi, Sara. Bible 1980. NT 1943. Bible portions 1932.
MBE (WESTERN MBUBE, KETUEN, EKUMTAK) [MFO] 14,300 (1973 SIL). Cross River State, Ogoja LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Mbe. Distinct from Mbe' of Cameroon, a Grassfields language. Bible portions 1992. Work in progress.
MBEMBE, CROSS RIVER (OKAM, ODERIGA, WAKANDE, IFUNUBWA, EKOKOMA, OFUNOBWAM) [MFN] 100,000 (1982 UBS). Cross River State, Obubra and Ikom LGA's; Anambra State, Abakaliki LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Mbembe-Legbo, Mbembe. Dialects: OKOM (EGHOM, OHANA-ONYEN), APIAPUM, ADUN, OSOPONG (OSOPHONG, EZOPONG), OFOMBONGA (EWUMBONGA), OFONOKPAN, EKAMA (EKAMU), OFERIKPE. Different than Tigon Mbembe. NT 1985. Bible portions 1975.
MBEMBE, TIGON (AKONTO, AKWANTO, TIGON, TIGONG, TUGUN, TUKUN, NOALE) [NZA] 20,000 in Nigeria (1987); 36,000 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 56,000 in all countries. Taraba State, Sardauna LGA, Kurmi district. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Mbembe. Dialects: ASHUKU (KITSIPKI), NAMA (DAMA, NAMU, NZARE, KPORO, ENEEME). Entirely different from Mbembe of Nigeria in the Cross River group. A dialect cluster. Speakers use Hausa as second language. Every village has a primary school. Forest. Hills. Agriculturalists: palm nuts, palm oil. Traditional religion, Christian.
MBOI (MBOIRE, MBOYI) [MOI] 19,000 (1992). Adamawa State, Song, Fufore, and Gombi LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Yungur, Mboi. Dialects: BANGA, MBOI (MBOIRE, MBOYI), HANDA, GANA. Dialect cluster. Speakers use Hausa, Fulfulde, Bwatiye, Yungur, Gudu, or Gaanda as second language. Primary schools are in all the major villages. They desire education. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
MBULA-BWAZZA [MBU] 35,000 to 40,000, including 10,000 Bwazza, 20,000 Tambo, 5,000 to 10,000 Mbula (1993). Adamawa State, Numan, Guyuk, Song, Demsa LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Jarawan, Nigerian. Dialects: BWAZZA (BWAZA, BWA'ZA, BARE, BERE, TAMBO), MBULA. Many also speak Kanakuru, Longuda, Bacama, or Bata. In some areas they live with the Libo and also speak Libo. Some older ones also speak Hausa or Fulfulde. Primary schools in the major villages, and a few secondary schools. Agriculturalists: maize, millet, guinea corn, peanuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, cocoyam, bananas, sugar cane; fishermen, animal husbandry: horses, goats, sheep, pigs. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
MBURKU (BARKE, BARKO, BURKANAWA, LIPKAWA, WUDUFU, KARIYA WUUFU) [BBT] 4,000 (1977 Skinner). Bauchi State, Darazo LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.2. Speakers are known as 'Lipkawa' or 'Burkunawa'. Survey needed.
MINI [MGJ] Rivers State, Brass LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Central Delta, Kugbo. Survey needed.
MIYA (MIYAWA, MUYA) [MKF] 5,200 (1971). Bauchi State, Darazo LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.2. Dialects: GALA, FAISHANG, FURSUM, DEMSHIN, FEDERE. Second language is Hausa. Gala may be a dialect of Warji. Faishang, Fursum, and Federe may be dialects of Izere. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
MOM JANGO (VERE, VERRE, WERE, KOBO) [VER] 88,000 in all countries; 4,000 in Cameroon (1982 SIL). Adamawa State, Yola and Fufore LGA's, Verre hills. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Duru, Voko-Dowayo, Vere-Dowayo, Vere-Gimme, Vere. Dialects: MOM JANGO, MOMI (ZIRI). Mom Jango and Momi are probably separate languages. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim.
MONTOL (MONTAL, BALTAP, TEEL) [MTL] 21,858 (1990). Plateau State, Shendam LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.3, Angas Proper, 2. Dialects: MONTOL, BALTAP-LALIN. Related to Tal. Survey needed.
MPADE (MAKARI, MENDAGE, MANDAGE, MANDAGUÉ) [MPI] 12,000 in all countries (1992 SIL). Borno State. Also in Cameroon and Chad. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, B, B.1, Kotoko Proper. Dialects: SHOE (SHAWE, CHAOUE, SCHOE, MANI), MPADE (MAKARI), BODO, WOULKI, DIGAM. Shoe dialect is only in Cameroon. Close to Lagwan. Related to Afade, Mser, Malgbe, and Maslam.
MUMUYE (YORO) [MUL] 400,000 in Nigeria (1993 SIL); 500,000 to 600,000 in all countries (1992). Taraba State, Jalingo, Zing, Karim Lamido, Yoro, Bali, Ganye, Fufore, Yola, Numan, and Mayo Belwa LGA's. Also possibly in Cameroon. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Mumuye. Dialects: ZINNA, DONG, YORO, LANKAVIRI, GOLA (BAJAMA), GONGLA, KASAA, SAAWA, PANGSENG, JALINGO, NYAAJA, JENG, GNOORE, YAA, RANG, SAGBEE, SHAARI, KUGONG, MANG, KWAJI, MEEKA, YAKOKO. Lankaviri and Zing dialects are sufficiently different to need separate literature. Pangseng and Rang may be separate languages. 25% to 50% literate. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. NT 1995. Bible portions 1938.
MUNDAT [MMF] Plateau State, Mangu LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.4, Ron Proper. Survey needed.
MUNGA (KARIMJO, ETEYE, YATOI, BIBINO, MINGANG DOSO, NGWAI MUNGÀN, DOSO) [MKO] 3,000 or fewer (1995 SIL). Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, 15 km. east of Karim Lamido town. 1 village and associated hamlets. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Jen. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
MWAGHAVUL (SURA) [SUR] 300,000 (1993 SIL); including 5,000 Chakfem (1990). Plateau State, Barakin-Ladi and Mangu LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.3, Angas Proper, 1. Dialects: MAPUN (MAPAN, MUPUN), PANYAM, CAKFEM (CHOKFEM, CHAKFEM, KADIM-KABAN), MUSHERE. Several smaller language groups nearby use Mwaghavul as second language. 50% to 75% literate. Trade language. NT 1991-1995. Bible portions 1915-1966.
NDOOLA (NDORO, NUNDORO, NJOYAME, NDOLA) [NDR] 50,000 in all countries (1992); 1,300 in Cameroon (1982 SIL). Taraba State, Bali, Gashaka, Sardauna LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Mambiloid, Ndoro. Some speakers use Fulfulde or Hausa as second language. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
NGWABA (GOMBI, GOBA) [NGW] 10,000 (1993 CAPRO). Adamawa State, Gombi LGA at Fachi and Guduniya, and Hong LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8. Speakers use Gudu, Nzanyi, Fulfulde, or Hausa as second languages. Agriculturalists, hunters, butchers. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
NIGERIAN SIGN LANGUAGE [NSI] Deaf sign language. Influences from American and Ghanaian sign languages. Originated in 1960. Survey needed.
NINZAM (NINZO, NUNZO, GBHU) [NIN] 35,000 (1973 SIL). Kaduna State, Jema'a LGA; Plateau State, Akwanga LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Western, Southwestern, A. Speakers have a considerable degree of bilingualism in Hausa.
NJERUP (NJEREP) [NJR] 2 in Nigeria (1987 Blench and Williamson); and 5 in Cameroon (1995 Bruce Connell). Southeast, near the Mambila. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Mambiloid, Mambila-Konja, Njerup. Not used for communicating any longer in Cameroon. Nearly extinct.
NKEM-NKUM [ISI] 34,500 (1987 Asinya); including 18,000 Nkem, 16,500 Nkum. Cross River State, Ogoja LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Ekoid. Dialects: NKEM (NKIM, OGOJA, ISHIBORI, ISIBIRI, OGBOJA), NKUM. Dialect cluster. Work in progress.
NKOROO (NKORO) [NKX] 4,550 (1989 UBS). Rivers State, Bonny LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Ijo, Eastern, Northeastern, Nkoroo. A separate language within the Ijo cluster. Survey needed.
NKUKOLI (LOKOLI, LOKUKOLI, NKOKOLLE, EKURI) [NBO] 1,000 (1973 SIL). Cross River State, at the juncture of Ikom, Obubra and Akamkpa LGA's, Iko Ekperem Development Area. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Loko. Survey needed.
NKWAK [NKQ] Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA, further locatation data imprecise. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Unclassified. All the alternate names listed except 'Tanjijili' are names of the people. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
NUPE (NUFAWA, NUPECI, NUPENCHI, NUPECIDJI, NUPENCIZI) [NUP] 1,062,000 (1993 Johnstone); including 283,000 Nupe Central (1931), 18,200 Ganagana (1931), 4,500 Kakanda (1931), 19,100 Bassa Nge (1931), 1,560 Eggan (1963). Niger State, Lavun, Mariga, Gbako, Bida, Agaie, and Lapai LGA's; Kwara State, Edu LGA; Kofi State, Kogi and Bassa LGA's; Federal Capital Territory. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Nupoid, Nupe-Gbagyi. Dialects: NUPE CENTRAL (NIFE, ANUPE, NUPECIZI, NUPENCIZI, AMPEYI, ANUPECWAYI, ANUPERI, TAPA, TAPPAH, TAKPA), GANAGANA (GANAGAWA, DIBO, SHITAKO, ZITAKO), KAKANDA (AKANDA, HYABE, ADYAKTYE, BUDON), BASSA NGE (IBARA), EGGAN, NUPE TAKO, EDZU, AGBI, GUPA, KAMI, GBANMI-SOKUN, KUPA, ASU. Dialect cluster. Nupe Central has become literary norm. Subdialects of Nupe Central: Ebe (Abewa, Asu), Kupa, Kede (Kyedye). Asu, Ganagana, Gupa, Kakanda, Kami, Kupa, and Nupe Tako may be separate languages. A regionally important language. 60% literate. Trade language. Fishermen. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian. Bible 1953-1989. NT 1915-1982. Bible portions 1877-1950.
NYONG (MUMBAKE, MUBAKO, NYONGNEPA, NYOKING, DAGANYONGA, TETEKA, CHUKKOL, YAPELI, PETI) [MUO] (17,000 in Cameroon; 1987). Adamawa State, Mayo Belwa LGA, 6 villages. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Leko. Speakers use Hausa, Fulfulde, Samba Leko, Yendang, Kumba, or Mumuye as second languages. Growing interest in education. Agriculturalists, traders, hunters. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
NZANYI (NJANYI, NZANGI, NJAI, NJENY, ZANI, ZANY, JENG, JENGE, NJEI, NJEING, KOBOTSHI, PAKA) [NJA] 77,000 in Nigeria (1993); 9,000 in Cameroon; 86,000 in all countries. Adamawa State, Maiha LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8. Dialect: HOLMA. Speakers use Fulfulde as second language. Holma is being replaced by Fulfulde (Blench). Schools in nearly every village, but enrollment is usually low. Agriculturalists. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian.
OBANLIKU (ABANLIKU) [BZY] 65,000 (1989). Cross River State, Obudu LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Bendi. Dialects: BEBI, BUSI, BASANG, BISU (GAYI), BISHIRI. Dialect cluster. Related to Alege.
OBOLO (ANDONI, ANDONE, ANDONNI) [ANN] 100,000 (1990 Uche E. Aaron). Rivers State, Bonny LGA; Akwa Ibom State, Ikot Abasi LGA, islands off southern coast. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, West. Dialects: NGO, ATABA, UNYEADA, OKOROETE, IBOT OBOLO. 'Obolo' is their own name, 'Andoni' is the government's name. Obolo is taught in all primary and junior secondary schools. There are church adult literacy classes all over the area. There is a quarterly magazine in Obolo. Primers are in use. Ngo is the prestige dialect. Ibibio and Ibo are the trade languages. English is learned in school. In the east there is a movement toward establishing a stronger Obolo ethnic identity and getting rid of borrowed words from Ibibio. Bounded on the east and northeast by the Ibibio, on the northwest by the Ogoni, on the west by the Kalabari, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean. 25% to 50% literate. Riverine. Fishermen, agriculturalists. NT 1991. Bible portions 1987-1988.
ODUAL (SAKA) [ODU] 18,000 (1989). Rivers State, Ahoada LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Central Delta, Abua-Odual. Most closely related to Abua; about 70% lexical similarity. NT 1981.
ODUT [ODA] 700 (1940; 1950 Forde and Jones). Cross River State, Odukpani LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Kiong-Korop. It may be extinct. Survey needed.
OGBAH (OGBA) [OGC] 170,000 (1993 A. Ahiamadu). Rivers State, Ogbah-Egbema-Ndoni LGA, northern Niger Delta. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Igboid, Igbo. Dialects: EGNIH, IGBURU-USOMINI. A separate language in the Igbo language cluster. The dialects have 81% to 94% lexical similarity with each other. Ogbah has 45% lexical similarity with Ndoni, 41% with Egbema, 32% with Ikwere, 23% with Ekpeye. About 64 primary schools, 8 post-primary schools, technical college in the area. Low literacy in Ogbah. Igbo, Nigerian Pidgin, and English are used as second languages. Agriculturalists, fishermen, traders. Christian, traditional religion. Work in progress.
OGBIA (OGBINYA) [OGB] 200,000 (1989). Rivers State, Brass LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Central Delta, Kugbo. Dialects: KOLO, OLOIBIRI, ANYAMA. Dialect cluster but all inherently intelligible. English making little impact. Work in progress.
OGBOGOLO (OBOGOLO) [OGG] 10,000 or fewer (1995). Rivers State, Ahoada LGA, 1 town. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Central Delta, Kugbo. Survey needed.
OGBRONUAGUM (BUKUMA) [OGU] Rivers State, Degema LGA, Bukuma village near Buguma. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Central Delta, Kugbo. Survey needed.
OKODIA (OKORDIA) [OKD] 3,600 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Rivers State, Yenagoa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Ijo, Central, Oruma-Northeast Central, Northeast Central. Not intelligible with Biseni or other Ijo languages. Survey needed.
OKO-ENI-OSAYEN (OKO, OGORI-MAGONGO) [OKS] 10,000 including 4,000 in Ogori, 3,000 in Magongo, 3,000 in Eni (1989 Williamson). Kogi State, Okene LGA, Ogori and Magongo towns, ten miles south southwest of Okene. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Oko. Dialects: OKO (OGORI, UKU), OSAYEN (MAGONGO, OSANYIN), ENI. A dialect cluster. It seems to be equally distantly related to Yoruba, Ebira, Edo, Igbo, and Idoma. Survey needed.
OKPAMHERI (OPAMERI) [OPA] 30,000 (1973 SIL). Edo State, Akoko-Edo LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Northwestern, Southern. Dialects: OKULOSHO (OKUROSHO), WESTERN OKPAMHERI, EMHALHE (EMARLE, SOMORIKA, SEMOLIKA). Subdialects of Okulosho: Ojirami (Eekunu), Dagbala (Dangbala), Oja (Oza), Makeke (Uuma), Oma. Subdialects of Western Okpamheri: Ekpe, Bekuma, Lankpese (Lampese, Lankpeshi), Ibillo (Ibilo), Imoga (Imorga, Uma), Eko (Ekon, Ekor), Ikaran-Oke (Ikeram-Oke), Ebunn-Oke, Ikaran-Ele (Ikeran-Ile, Ebunn-Ugbo, Ikpesa, Igbo-Ola-Sale (Ugboshi-Sale), Aiyegunle (Oshi), Igbo-Ola-Oke (Ugboshi-Oke), Onumo (Onumu), Ogugu, Ogbe-Sale, Ogbe-Oke. Emhalhe may be a separate language. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
OKPE [OKE] 8,722 (1957 Bradbury). Edo State, Okpe LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Southwestern. Distinct from Okpe-Idesa-Oloma-Akuku, which is Northwestern Edoid. Survey needed.
OKPE-IDESA-OLOMA-AKUKU [OKP] Edo State, Akoko-Edo LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Northwestern, Southern. Dialects: OKPE, IDESA, OLOMA, AKUKU. Oloma may be a separate language. Different from Okpe which is Southwestern Edoid. Survey needed.
OKRIKA (KIRIKE) [OKR] 248,000 (1995 UBS). Rivers State, Okrika, Opobo, Bonny, and Degema LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Ijo, Eastern, Northeastern, Ibani-Okrika-Kalabari. Bible portions 1979-1991. Work in progress.
OLULUMO-IKOM (LULUMO) [IKO] 30,000 (1989), including 5,000 Olulumo, 25,000 Ikom. Cross River State, Ikom LGA. May also be in Cameroon. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Ikom. Dialects: OKUNI, OLULUMO, IKOM. Survey needed.
ORUMA [ORR] 5,000 or fewer (1995). Rivers State, Brass LGA, 1 town. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Ijoid, Ijo, Central, Oruma-Northeast Central, Oruma. A separate language within the Ijo cluster. Survey needed.
PANA (PANI) [PNZ] (82,000 in CAR; 1996). Urban areas of Nigeria and Cameroon. Mainly in Central African Republic. Also in Chad. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Mbum-Day, Mbum, Central, Karang. Bible portions 1953.
PEERE (PERE, PEER, PARE, KUTIN, KOUTIN, KUTINE, KUTINN, KOTOPO, KOTOFO, KOTPOJO, POTOPO, POTOPORE, PATAPORI) [KUT] 5,000 in Nigeria (1993); 15,000 in Cameroon (1993); 20,000 in all countries. Adamawa State, Ganye LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Duru, Voko-Dowayo, Kutin. Speakers use Fulfulde as second language. Hunters. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian. NT 1986.
PIDGIN, NIGERIAN (NIGERIAN CREOLE ENGLISH, NIGERIAN PIDGIN ENGLISH) [PCM] Southern states and in Sabon Garis of the northern states, coastal and urban areas. Creole, English based, Atlantic, Krio. It is a creole with native speakers, as well as used as a pidgin between Africans and Europeans, and Africans from different languages. No unified standard or orthography. Used in novels, plays, radio, poetry, advertising. Increasing in importance and use. Partially intelligible with Krio of Sierra Leone and Cameroon Pidgin. Trade language. Bible portions 1957.
PIYA (WURKUM, PIA, AMBANDI, KHOLOK) [PIY] 5,000 or more (1992). Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, some in Bauchi State. 21 villages or more. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Tangale, Tangale Proper. Speakers use Hausa, Kulung, Pelang, Tangale or some English as second language. Similar in culture to the Kulung, Kodei, Kwanchi, Pelang, and Pero. 'Ambandi' is their name for themselves. Agriculturalists. Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1950. Survey needed.
POLCI (PALCI, PALCHI, POLCHI) [POL] 10,800 or more (1993); 2,400 Zul, 4,000 Buli (1993), 400 Langas (1993), 2,950 Polci, 250 Baram (1993), 800 Dir (1993). Bauchi State, Bauchi and Toro LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.3, Zaar Proper. Dialects: ZUL (MBARMI, BARMA), BARAM (MBARAM, BARANG), DIR (DIIR, DRA, BARAM DUTSE), BULI, LANGAS (NYAMZAX, LUNDUR), POLCI (POSA, POLSHI, PALCI). Polci dialect cluster in Barawa language cluster. Survey needed.
PONGU (PONGO, PANGU, ARRINGEU, TARYA) [PON] 20,000 or more speakers (1988 Roger Blench). Niger State, Rafi LGA, Gumna and Tegina districts, widespread small villages between Kusheriki in the north, Zungeru in the south, and along the new road to the southwest, with center in Sabon Gari Pangu. Bordered by the Kamuku, Ngwoi, Ura, Basa-Kaduna, Baushi, Basa-Gurmana, Gurmana, and Gbari. Small numbers are in Kaduna, Minna, Kontagora, and Bida towns. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kamuku. Dialect variation is slight, with 94% to 99% similarity. Pongu always used to other Pongu. Also used in church when only Pongu are present. Hausa is used as second language with outsiders. English is used in education and for national government purposes. Some children and adults are literate in Hausa or English. They call their language 'Tarya', themselves 'Arya'. Sister exchange pattern in marriage. Savannah. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 200 to 500 meters. Muslim, traditional religion (Mai-Giro), Christian. Survey needed.
PSIKYE (KAPSIKI, KAMSIKI, PTSAKE) [KVJ] 12,000 in Nigeria (1992); 40,500 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 52,500 in all countries. Adamawa State, north and east of Michika, south of Madagali, in the Mandara Mts. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.3. Dialects: PSIKYE (KAPSIKI, KAMU), ZLENGE, WULA (OULA, ULA-XANGKU, LYING). The Wula dialect is in Nigeria. Closely related to Hya and Kamwe of Nigeria. Low literacy rate. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: guinea corn, peanuts, rice, beans; animal husbandry. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. NT 1988.
PUKU-GEERI-KERI-WIPSI (FAKANCHI) [GEL] 36,000 or more (1992 SIL). Kebbi State, Zuru LGA, Fakai District, with migrants farther south. Kur is also in Sokoto State, Sakaba LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Duka. Dialects: KAG (PUKU, FAKANCHI, ET-KAG), JIIR (GELANCHI, ET-JIIR), KUR (KERE, KAR, KERI-NI, KELLI-NI, KELANCHI, KELINCI), ZUKSUN (ZUSSUN, WIPSI-NI, ET-ZUKSUN), ROR (ET-MAROR, TUDANCHI, FAKANCHI, ER-GWAR), FER (FERE. ET-FER, WIPSI-NI, KUKUM), US (ET-US), KOOR (KULU). 81% to 97% lexical similarity among dialects. Kag, Ker, Jiir, and Fer speakers have 79% to 92% inherent intelligibility of Ror. Ror and Kag are the largest, Koor and Us the smallest. 63% lexical similarity with Duka, 50% with Lela, 57% with Gwamhi-Wuri. Speakers are interested in literature in their language. Hausa proficiency differs regionally. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian.
PUTAI (MARGHI WEST) [MFL] Few speakers. Borno State, Damboa LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.2, 1. The language is dying out in favor of Kanuri, but the ethnic population is large. Nearly extinct.
PYAPUN [PCW] 4,635 (1934 Ames). Plateau State, Shendam LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.3, Angas Proper, 2. Related to Tal and Montol. Survey needed.
RESHE (TSURESHE, TSUREJA, BARESHE, GUNGA, GUNGAWA, GUNGANCHI, YAURAWA) [RES] 44,000 (1993 SIL). Kebbi State, Yauri LGA; Niger State, Borgu LGA; southern Kebbi State, western Niger State, banks of the Niger River, north of Busa. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Reshe. The people are BaReshe, the language Reshe or TsuReshe. Blench says it is the most divergent of the Western Kainji languages. 43% lexical similarity with Lopa, 33% with Laru, 20% with Duka, 11% with Kamabari (Salka). Ethnic subgroups: Gungawa, Yaurawa (Yauri). There is a strong association between wrestling, the traditional religion, and ethnic identity. Agriculturalists: guinea corn, beans, rice, onions; fishermen; canoe makers; mat makers. Altitude: 180 to 300 meters. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian less than. Bible portions 1970. Survey needed.
RON ("CHALLA", "CHALA") [CLA] 115,000 (1995). Plateau State, Bokkos, Barakin-Ladi and Mangu LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.4, Ron Proper. Dialects: BOKKOS (RON-BOKKOS), BUTURA (RON-BUTURA). Work in progress.
RUBASA (RUBASSA, BASSA-KWOMU, BASSA-KOMO, BASA-BENUE, ABATSA, ABACHA) [BZW] 100,000 (1973 SIL). Kogi State, Bassa and Ankpa LGA's; Plateau State, Nassarawa LGA; Federal Capital Territory, Yaba and Kwali LGA's; Benue State, Makurdi LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Basa. North-south dialect division along the Benue River. Speakers do not like the name 'Bassa-Kwomu'. 5% literate. Hausa is the second language. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. NT 1972, out of print. Bible portions 1946-1965.
SAMBA DAKA (CHAMBA DAKA, TSAMBA, TCHAMBA, SAMA, SAMBA, JAMA, DAKA, DAKKA, DEKKA, NAKANYARE, DENG, TIKK) [CCG] 60,000 (1973 SIL); 500,000 all Samba varieties (1993). Taraba State, Gashaka, Jalingo, Bali, Zing LGA's, and Adamawa State, Ganye and Mayo Belwa LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Dakoid. Dialect: SAMBA GURUM. Different from Samba Leko or Chamba (Akaselem) of Togo. Close to Dirim. Speakers use Fulfulde or Hausa as second language. 3% literate. Much blindness from filaria. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1933.
SAMBA LEKO (CHAMBA LEKO, SAMBA LEEKO, SAMBA, NDII, LEKON, LEGO, LEKO, SUNTAI) [NDI] 50,000 in all countries (1971 Welmers). Adamawa State, Ganye LGA, Leko District, around Donga near Takum. Also in Cameroon. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Leko. Those in Donga now speak Jukun. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Work in progress.
SANGA (ISANGA, GUSU) [SGA] 5,000 (1973 SIL). Bauchi State, Toro LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera. Dialect: BUJIYEL. The language is Isanga, a speaker Osanga, the speakers Asanga. Distinct from Numana-Nunku-Gwantu (Sanga) of Kaduna and Plateau states. Survey needed.
SETO-GBE [STS] Lagos State, Badagry LGA. Also in Benin. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Kwa, Left Bank, Gbe, Aja. Survey needed.
SHA [SCW] 500 (1973 SIL). Plateau State, Mangu LGA, Sha town. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.4, Ron Proper. Survey needed.
SHAGAWU (SHAGAU, NAFUNFIA, MALENI) [ROA] 20,000 (1973 SIL). Plateau State, Mangu LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.4, Ron Proper. Related to Bokkos, Sha, Kulere, Karfa. Hausa is used as lingua franca. Bible portions 1963.
SHAMA (SHAMA-SAMBUGA) [SQA] 5,000 or fewer (1995 S. and S. Dettweiler). Niger State, Rafi and Mariga LGA's; Kaduna State, Birnin Gwari LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kamuku. Dialects: SHAMA, SAMBUGA. 64% to 66% lexical similarity with the three Kamuku dialects, 69% with Hungworo, 52% with Eastern Acipa, 16% to 17% with Western Acipa. Survey needed.
SHANGA (SHANGAWA, SHONGA, SHONGAWA) [SHO] 5,000 to 10,000 (1995 Ross Jones SIM). Kebbi State between Kaoje and Yauri, on both sides of the Niger River, but especially on the north bank; Gante, Lafugu, Zaria, Besse, Shanga, Dugu Raha, Dugu Tsofo, Bakin Turu villages. Niger-Congo, Mande, Eastern, Southeastern, Eastern, Busa. It is reported that most Shanga do not speak Shanga any longer but Hausa, and those who do speak them are bilingual in Hausa. Tyenga and Shanga have 70% lexical similarity. Not intelligible with the Busa group; 38% to 40% lexical similarity. Traditional religion, Muslim. Survey needed.
SHOO-MINDA-NYEM (BANDA-MINDA-KUNINI, JINLERI) [BCV] 10,000 (1973 SIL). Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, villages on the banks of the Benue River. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Unclassified. Dialects: SHOO (BANDA, BANDAWA), MINDA, NYEM (KUNINI). All 3 dialects are of equal status. Called 'Bakula' together with Como Karim, Munga, Jiru, and Jessi. Ethnic groups: Banda, Kunini, Lau Habe. Some bilingualism in Fulfulde, Hausa, and Jenjo. Fishermen. Christian, traditional religion, Muslim. Survey needed.
SIRI (SIRAWA) [SIR] 3,000 (1993). Bauchi State, Darazo and Ningi LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.2. Survey needed.
SOMYEWE (KILA, SOMIYEB) [KGT] 100 speakers or fewer (1992 Crozier and Blench). Taraba State, Sardauna LGA, Kila Yang, Njike, Kuma, Jabu, Kikau, and Mayo Daga towns. Apparently extinct in Cameroon. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Mambiloid, Mambila-Konja, Magu-Kamkam-Kila. They live among the Mambila. Blacksmiths. Muslim. Survey needed.
SUKUR (SUGUR, ADIKIMMU SUKUR, GEMASAKUN, SAKUL) [SUK] 14,779 (1992). Northern tip of Adamawa State, Michika LGA, Mandara Mts. Perhaps in Cameroon. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.6. Speakers use Fulfulde, Hausa, Wula (Psikyye), Kamwe, or some English as second languages. Hausa used in most churches. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists, animal husbandry. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
TAL (AMTUL, KWABZAK) [TAL] 10,000 (1973 SIL). Plateau State, Pankshin LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.3, Angas Proper, 2. Related to Montol, Goemai, Pyapun, Koenoem. Survey needed.
TALA [TAK] 1,000 (1993). Bauchi State, Bauchi LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.3, Guruntum. May be intelligible with Guruntum. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
TAMAJEQ, TAHOUA (TAMASHEQ, TOMACHECK, TUAREG) [TTQ] Few in Nigeria; 540,000 in all countries (1991). Also in Niger (primarily), and Mali. Afro-Asiatic, Berber, Tamasheq, Southern. Dialect: IOULLEMMEDEN. It may be the eastern rather than the western dialect in Nigeria. Muslim. Bible portions 1979-1985. Work in progress.
TAMBAS (TAMBES, TEMBIS) [TDK] 3,000 (1973 SIL). Plateau State, Mangu LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.4, Fyer. May be intelligible with Fyer. Survey needed.
TANGALE (TANGLE) [TAN] 100,000 (1973 SIL). Bauchi State, Billiri, Kaltungo and Akko LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.2, Tangale, Tangale Proper. Close to Biliri. NT 1932-1963. Bible portions 1920-1929.
TAROK (YERGAM, YERGUM, APPA) [YER] 150,000 (1993 SIL). Plateau State, Kanam, Wase, and Langtang LGA's; Gongola State, Wukari LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Tarokoid. Dialects: HILL TAROK, PLAIN TAROK. 50% to 75% literate. NT 1988. Bible portions 1917-1966.
TAURA (TAKAYA) [TDM] Still a few speakers (1992 Crozier and Blench). Bauchi State, Toro LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Eastern, Northern Jos, Jera. Nearly extinct.
TEDA [TUQ] 2,000 or fewer in Nigeria (1990 Blench); 40,000 in Niger (1991 L. Vanderaa CRC); 2,000 in Libya (1954 Lebeuf); 28,501 in Chad (1993 census); 72,500 in all countries. Borno State, northeastern LGA's, a few villages. Nilo-Saharan, Saharan, Central. Dialects: KECHERDA, AZA, TEDA, TUBU (TEBU, TEBOU, TIBBU, TOUBOU). Kecherda dialect is in Nigeria. Muslim. Work in progress.
TEME (TEMA) [TDO] 4,000 or fewer (1995). Adamawa State, Mayo Belwa LGA, along the banks of the Mayo Belwa River. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Mumuye. Speakers use Hausa or Fulfulde as second language. Some can speak Sate (Kumba), Yendang, or Gengle. Low literacy rate. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Muslim. Survey needed.
THIR [TWI] Adamawa State, Gombi LGA, north of Ga'anda. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.1, Eastern. Reported to not be the same as Ga'anda. Survey needed.
TIBA [TTB] Adamawa State, Ganye LGA; Tiba Plateau, between Garba Sbege and Jada, north of the Shebshi Mountains. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Tiba. Survey needed.
TIV ("MUNSHI") [TIV] 2,212,000 in Nigeria, 2.5% of the population (1991 SIL). Benue State, Makurdi, Gwer, Gboko Kwande, Vandeikya, and Katsina Ala LGA's; Plateau State, Lafia LGA; Taraba State, Bali, Takum, and Wukari LGA's. A few in Cameroon. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Southern, Tivoid. "Munshi" is a perjorative name. Regionally important language. Used in initial primary education. Christian, traditional religion. Bible 1964. NT 1936-1942. Bible portions 1916-1959.
TSAGU (SAGO, CIWOGAI) [TGD] 3,000 (P. Newman OIEL 1992). Bauchi State, Ningi and Darazo LGA's, near the Diri. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.2. Related to Diri, but a separate language. Survey needed.
TSIKIMBA (AGAUSHI, AUNA, KIMBA, AKIMBA, KAMBARI, KAMBERRI, KAMBERCHI) [KDL] 50,000 (1996). Niger State, Magama and Mariga LGA's, Auna and Wara areas, just west of Kainji Lake on the Niger River. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kambari. Dialects: AGAUNSHE, ASHEN. Closest to Tsishingini and Cishingini, but a separate language. Spoken by all ages. Speakers are called 'Akimba'. Speakers can use Hausa, and some can use English or other Kambari languages. 20% literate in Hausa. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian. Work in progress.
TSISHINGINI (KAMBARI, KAMBERRI, KAMBERCHI, SALKA, ASHINGINI) [KAM] 80,000 (1996 SIL). Niger State, Magama and Mariga LGA's, Salka area. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji, Western, Kambari. Dialect: IBETO. Spoken by all ages. Speakers are called 'Ashingini'. An important language in the Kambari language cluster, including Cishingini and Tsikimba, with which speakers have little or no intelligibility. 15% literate. Area opened by large dam. Primarily rural. Speakers can use some Hausa, and some can use English or other Kambari languages. 20% literate in Hausa. Christian, Muslim, traditional religion. Bible portions 1933. Work in progress.
TURKWAM (TURKPA) [TDV] 6,000 (1973 SIL). Plateau State, Akwanga LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Tarokoid. Arum and Chessu may be dialects. Survey needed.
TYENGA (TYANGA, TIENGA, KYENGA, KENGA) [TYE] 4,000 in Nigeria; 1,000 in Benin; 5,000 in both countries (1995 Ross Jones SIM). Kebbi State, Geshuru, Kaele, Saufu, and Tuni villages, all west of Illo, and in the Boko villages of Maze, Samia, Baikinrua, and Pisa. Also Tungan Bage in Benin. Niger-Congo, Mande, Eastern, Southeastern, Eastern, Busa. It is reported that nearly all Tyenga do not speak their language any longer but Hausa or Dendi, and those who do speak them are bilingual in Hausa. Tyenga and Shanga have 70% lexical similarity with each other. Not intelligible with the Busa group; 38% to 40% lexical similarity. Traditional religion, Muslim. Survey needed.
UBANG [UBA] Cross River State, Obudu LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Bendi. Survey needed.
UDA [UDA] 10,000 or more (1988). Akwa Ibom State, Mbo LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
UHAMI (ISHUA) [UHA] 5,498 (1963). Ondo State, Akoko South and Owo LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Northwestern, Osse. Listed separately from Iyayu by Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
UJIJILI (TANJIJILI, KORO FUNTU OF KAFIN KORO, KORO FUNTU OF MINNA, KORO OF SHAKOYI) [UJI] Niger State, Chanchaga and Suleija LGA's, on the road from Minna to Abuja at Kafin Koro. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Plateau, Southern. All the alternate names listed except 'Tanjijili' are names of the people. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
UKAAN (IKAN, ANYARAN, AUGA, KAKUMO) [KCF] 18,000 (1973 SIL). Ondo State, Akoko North LGA, towns of Kakumo-Akoko, Auga, Ishe; Edo State, Akoko Edo LGA, town of Anyaran, Kakumo-Aworo. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Ukaan-Akpes. Dialects: ISHE, KAKUMO. Yoruba is lingua franca. Survey needed.
UKPE-BAYOBIRI [UKP] 12,000 (1973 SIL). Cross River State, Obudu and Ikom LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Bendi. Dialects: UKPE, BAYOBIRI. Dialect cluster. Survey needed.
UKPET-EHOM (AKPET-EHOM) [AKD] Cross River State, Akamkpa LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Upper Cross, Akpet. Dialects: UKPET (AKPET), EHOM (UBETENG, EBETENG). A dialect cluster. Survey needed.
UKUE-EHUEN (EKPENMI, EKPENMEN, EPINMI) [UKU] 11,468 (1963), including 5,766 Ehuen (1963), 5,702 (1963) Ukue. Ondo State, Akoko South LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, Northwestern, Osse. Dialects: UKUE, EHUEN. Crozier and Blench 1992 treat Ukue and Ehuen as separate languages. Survey needed.
UKWA [UKQ] Cross River State, Akampka LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Cross River, Delta Cross, Lower Cross, Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
UKWUANI-ABOH [UKW] 150,000 (1973 SIL). Delta State, Ndokwa LGA; Rivers State, Ahoada LFA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Igboid, Igbo. Dialects: UKWUANI (UKWANI, UKWALI, KWALE), ABOH (EBOH). A dialect cluster within the Igbo language cluster. Survey needed.
ULUKWUMI [ULB] 10,000 or fewer (1992 Crozier and Blench). Delta State, Aniocha and Oshimili LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Defoid, Yoruboid, Edekiri. Survey needed.
VIN (VIMTIM, YIMTIM, FALI OF MUBI, FALI OF MUCHELLA) [FLE] 5,000 or fewer (1995). Adamawa State, Mubi LGA. May be in Cameroon. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8. Not related to North Fali or South Fali of Cameroon. Survey needed.
VUTE (MBUTE, MBUTERE, BUTE, WUTE, FUTE, BUTI, BABUTE, MFUTI, WETERE, VUTERE) [VUT] 1,000 or fewer in Nigeria (1973 SIL); 30,000 in Cameroon (1985 EELC); 31,000 in all countries. Taraba State, Sardauna LGA, Northeast Mambila Plateau. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid, Northern, Mambiloid, Suga-Vute, Vute. Bible portions 1988. Work in progress.
WAJA (WAGGA, WUYA) [WJA] 50,000 (1992 Crozier and Blench). Bauchi State, Akko, Biliri, Kaltungo LGA's; Adamawa State, northern Michika LGA; Borno State, Gwoza LGA; Taraba State, Bali LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Waja, Tula. Dialects: MALGWAL, MADZIGA, MAHALLA (YAGGA). Only small dialect differences. Speakers use Fulfulde as second language. Agriculturalists hunters; animal husbandry: cattle, goats, sheep. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1926-1935.
WAKA [WAV] 5,000 or more (1992). Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Mumuye. Survey needed.
WANDALA (MANDARA, NDARA) [MFI] 20,000 in Nigeria (1993), including 10,000 Gamargu, 9,300 Kirawa; 23,500 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 42,800 in all countries. Borno State, Damboa , Bama, Gwoza, and Konduga LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.4, Mandara Proper, Mandara. Dialects: KAMBURWAMA, MASFEIMA, JAMPALAM, ZIOGBA, MAZAGWA, GWANJE, GAMARGU (GAMERGU, MALGO, MALGWA), KIRAWA. Dialect cluster. Muslim, traditional religion. NT 1988. Bible portions 1967.
WAPAN (JUKUN WUKARI, WUKARI, WAKARI, WAPÃ, JUKUN WAPAN, JUKU, JUKUM, JUKON, JUKU JUNKUN, JINKUM) [JUK] 100,000 (1994 UBS). Taraba State, Wukari LGA; Plateau State, Shendam, Lafia, Awe, and Langtang LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Kororofa. Dialect: WUKAN. It is in the Kororofa language cluster. Traditional religion. NT 1994. Bible portions 1914.
WARJI (WARJA, WARJAWA, SAR) [WJI] 70,000 (1978 MARC). Bauchi State, Darazo and Ningi LGA's; Jigawa State, Birnin Kudu LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.2. Gala may be a dialect. 10% literate. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
WASE (JUKUN WASE) [JUW] Plateau State, Shendam and Langtang LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Central, Jukun-Mbembe-Wurbo, Jukun. In Jukun language cluster. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
WEDU [WEU] 1,000 or fewer (1971 GR). Plateau State, Pankshin, Kanam, and Langtang LGA's, scattered among the Angas. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, A, A.3, Angas Proper, 2. Related to Tal. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
WOM (PERE, PEREMA, PEREBA, ZAGAI) [WOM] 5,000 in Nigeria (1992); 13,000 in Cameroon (1982 SIL); 18,000 in all countries. Adamawa State, Fufore LGA. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Leko. Closely related to Samba Leko. It is reported that they intermarry with Mom Jango speakers. May not be in Cameroon. Traditional religion, Christian, 2 or 3 Muslims. Survey needed.
WUTANA [WUW] 1,075 (1922 Temple). Bauchi Emirate. Unclassified. Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Survey needed.
YEKHEE (ETSAKO, ETSAKOR, AFENMAI, IYEKHEE, "KUKURUKU") [ETS] 274,000 (1995 UBS). Edo State, Etsako, Agbako, and Okpebho LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid, North-Central, Ghotuo-Uneme-Yekhee. Dialects: AUCHI, UZAIRUE, SOUTH IBIE, UWEPA-UWANO (WEPPA WANO), AVIANWU (FUGAR), AVIELE, IVHIADAOBI. Not all speakers of the language recognize 'Yekhee' as the name of the language; some prefer 'Etsako'. However, 'Etsako' is not the only language listed as being spoken in Etsako LGA. The name "Kukuruku" is derogatory. Bible portions 1980. Work in progress.
YENDANG (YENDAM, YANDANG, NYANDANG, YUNDUM) [YEN] 62,640 (1987). Adamawa State, Mayo Belwa and Numan LGA's; Taraba State, Yoro, Jalingo, Zing, and Karim Lamido LGA's. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Leko-Nimbari, Mumuye-Yandang, Yandang. Dialects: KUSEKI, YOFO, POLI (AKULE, YAKULE). Speakers use Hausa, Fulfulde, Mumuye, or English as second languages. Agriculturalists, animal husbandry. Survey needed.
YORUBA (YOOBA, YARIBA) [YOR] 18,850,000 in Nigeria, 20.3% of the population (1993 Johnstone); 465,000 in Benin (1993 Johnstone); 20,000,000 in all countries (1991 UBS). Most of Oyo, Ogun, Ondo Osun, Kwara, and Lagos states; and western LGA's of Kogi State. Also in Togo. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Defoid, Yoruboid, Edekiri. Dialects: OYO, IJESHA, ILA, IJEBU, ONDO, WO, OWE, JUMU, IWORRO, IGBENA, YAGBA, GBEDDE, EGBA, AKONO, AWORO, BUNU (BINI), EKITI, ILAJE, IKALE, AWORI. Oyo is the standard literary usage. The literacy rate is 35%. The official language in the southwest. Used for government notices, radio, television, primary and secondary education, university courses, a thriving literature including books, newspapers, pamphlets. National language. Typology: SVO. Christian, Muslim, traditional religion. Braille Bible portions. Bible 1884-1966. NT 1862-1993. Bible portions 1850-1960.
YUKUBEN (NYIKUBEN, NYIKOBE, AYIKIBEN, BORITSU, BALAABE, BALAABEN, OOHUM, UUHUM, UUHUM-GIGI, UHUMKHEGI) [YBL] 15,000 in Nigeria (1992); 950 in Cameroon (1986 R. Breton); 16,000 in all countries. Taraba State, Takum LGA, between the Katsina Ala and Gamana rivers. About 20 villages in Nigeria. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Platoid, Benue, Jukunoid, Yukuben-Kuteb. Speakers use Jukun, Kuteb (in areas close to Kuteb), or Hausa as second languages. Many women, especially in the mountains, do not understand Hausa. Limited access. Trade language. Traditional religion, Christian.
YUNGUR (BINNA, EBINA, BENA, EBUNA, BUNA, DUMNE, "LALA") [YUN] 95,000 (1992). Adamawa State, Guyuk, Gombi, and Song LGA's, between Shelleng and Song. Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Adamawa, Waja-Jen, Yungur, Yungur-Roba. Speakers use Fulfulde, Kanakuru, or Hausa as second languages. The name "Lala" is offensive. 'Purra' is a cover term for the northern clans. Traditional religion, Christian, Muslim.
ZARI (ZARIWA) [ZAZ] 3,950 or more including 2,950 Zakshi (1950 H.D. Gunn), 1,000 Boto (1950). Bauchi State, Toro and Tafawa Balewa LGA's. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.3, Zaar Proper. Dialects: ZAKSHI (ZAKSA), BOTO (BOOT, BIBOT), ZARI (KOPTI, KWAPM). In the Zari dialect cluster in the Barawa language cluster. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
ZARMA (DYERMA, DYARMA, DYABARMA, ZABARMA, ADZERMA, DJERMA, ZARBARMA, ZERMA) [DJE] 50,000 in Nigeria (1973 SIL); 1,495,000 in Niger; 600 in Burkina Faso (1987); 2,000,000 in all countries (1991 WA). Kebbi State, Argungu, Birnin Kebbi, and Bunza LGA's; Niger State. Also in Benin. Nilo-Saharan, Songhai. Muslim. Braille Bible portions. Bible 1990. NT 1954. Bible portions 1934.
ZEEM [ZUA] Bauchi State, Toro LGA. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, West, B, B.3, Zaar Proper. Dialects: ZEEM (TULAI), DANSHE (CHAARI), LUSHI (LUKSHI, DOKSHI). The Zeem dialect cluster in the Barawa language cluster. Survey needed.
ZIZILIVEKEN (ZIZILIVAKAN, ZILIVA, ÀMZÍRÍV, FALI OF JILBU) [ZIZ] A few hundred in Cameroon (1992 Crozier and Blench). Near Nigerian border, Bourrah Subdivision, Mayo-Tsanaga Division, Far North Province. Also in Nigeria. Afro-Asiatic, Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8. People are called 'Fali of Jilbu'. May be the same as Jilbe in Nigeria. Survey needed.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: Non Sequitir. I NEVER said I know everything about all cultures in Africa. YOU said that.
I don't have to. Buddy, when you make claims such as "Most African cultures', you have implied that you know almost all about African cultures. A person doesn't just make a casual claim of "Most", without knowing "most" African cultures. Now, lets have the specifics on these, or are you going to continue with these lame trolling tactics of yours, that we are now getting use to?
quote:Doug M: And I get the impression that YOU think you do and it makes your head hurt to see someone else post something, which threatens your position as CHIEF KNOW IT ALL OF AFRICA
Well, Miss Cleo, I am afraid that your attempt at psychological analysis has been exposed as one big scam and your time for such petty little mind games has long expired. But indeed, if we were to assume that there was really something to what you are daydreaming about above, certainly YOU are quite far from being that individual. What have you thus far produced that has been requested of you, and what of value have you presented in this entire thread, other than stalling tactics via ambiguous claims, presumably because you feel that folks here are dumb enough to be taken by your bogus claims, and then turning around and asking others to prove you wrong. People like yourself hide behind ambiguity, precisely because it makes you feel that you can dodge the specifics needed to expose your scams, scams that fool none other but yourself.
quote:Doug M: Trust me I am much more humble than that.
You are the last person who should be asking for the trust of another, when you continue to troll, after repeated requests for you to specify your claims. Trolls hide behind ambiguity, and then ask others to prove what it is that THEY are being asked to specify and hence, prove or corroborate. That is not being humble, it is being a troll; plain and simple!
quote:Doug M: I DO know enough to know that MOST did not build in stone, especially before and during the time of the Dynastic period in Egypt.
We get it: You don't know what those "MOST" themselves are; but you know enough to know that "MOST" didn't do what you claim they didn't, during an unspecified timeframe or place, presumably some time "during the time of Dynastic Egypt". Now, this is the kind of logic that makes sense to only TROLLS!
quote:Doug M:
MY point still stands, unless you can prove otherwise.
What point? We are still waiting for you to make a point!
quote:Doug M: If you need to figure out what MOST means, then you NEED to stop asking me and CONSULT a dictionary, o wise one of Africa.
You need to figure out what "specify" means, what "corroboration" means, what "Most" means, what "Africa" means, what "culture" means, before you can put those words together, and make claims on things you have no clue about, o trolling one of America.
quote:NONE of the images you posted show scenes of daily life CARVED in stone like the Egyptians.
NONE of them were intended to, but of course, it is a figment of your imagination. The point that needed to be taken home, was one about permanent structures in the said cultures, particularly stone.
quote:Doug M: If so, please point it out.
We can start, by going through the "Most African cultures" that you keep referring to, but have no idea what they are. If you do have an idea of what those are, we might be in the business of moving this discussion forward. But I won't hold my breath.
quote:Doug M: I ONLY was comparing the DURABILITY of images carved in stone versus the NON DURABILITY of the ITEMS depicted. But, OF COURSE, now I have to show you the CHEMICAL make up of ALL items used in ALL African societies to SAY this right?
Not a bad request that you made up yourself, but we don't expect you to be capable of living up to it.
quote:Doug M: YOu come off as a pompous, egotistical, SELF appointed GATEKEEPER, as if someone HAS to go through you in order to be ALLOWED to state their opinions.
I don't make opinions, I corroborate my claims, which is something you should try doing at any point in this discussion. Looks like you expose yourself as a baseless egotistical, self-deluding, [and it goes without saying] insignificant vile little troll as we go further with these exchanges.
quote:Doug M: What are YOUR CREDENTIALS that allows you to spout so much NONSENSE.
Likewise, I would like to know what you 'think' your credentials are, since you are incapable of knowing what they are, that allows you to assume that we aren't aware that you are troll.
quote:Doug M: How many books have YOU written? How many times have you BEEN to Africa? How many African cultures can YOU name? How many African Cultures do you know in INTIMATE detail concerning language, culture and history?
Interesting, these are the same things I've been meaning to find out about you. It is YOU who made the claim about "Most African cultures", and yet cannot even specify what these are, much less corroborate the wild claims you make about them!
quote:Doug M: Pont being everyone on this board may not have the same level of knowledge, but that is the POINT of this board. If I KNEW everything already, I SURE wouldn't come here expecting to LEARN anything. You are just being ASININE for NO OTHER PURPOSE than just out of spite. NOTHING you are saying is making the least amount of sense, but I WILL make YOU UNDERSTAND the silliness of YOUR WAYS my son.
Well, my daughter, what point have you made in this entire thread, other than to expose to the rest of us, that you are one laughable fraud and a troll?
quote:Doug M: I know enough to know that your LOGIC is faulty.
What logic of mine? We are trying to get to the bottom of YOUR claim about "Most African cultures".
quote:Doug M: Yes, there were cultures in Africa that built in stone. HOWEVER, they are NOT in the MAJORITY.
We've been waiting for you to tell us about the "MAJORITY" you keep nattering about, but don't seem to know what they are.
quote:Doug M: You keep trying to TWIST this into something ELSE.
When you are trolling, what is there for me to twist?
quote:Doug M: SHOW me, in any way you can, HOW THESE cultures are the MAJORITY of African cultures from ANY period and YOU will win the prize.
What we need from you, is not a 'prize', but actually answers pertaining to your claims!
quote:Doug M: My point is that they ARE NOT and it certainly stands to reason that it is NOT necessary to NAME all of the ancient cultures that existed in Africa to prove it.
Crackpots feel no need to corroborate or specify their claims; we understand.
quote:Doug M:
quote:Supercar posted: Which Aksumite monument(s) are you referring to, and how is/are Aksumite monument(s) related to Egypt "anyway"?
You posted a aksumite obelisk didnt you?
Yes, and this has do to with Egypt, how?
quote:Doug M: This obelisk is a representation IN STONE of wooden structures from Aksum. Therefore, a representation in stone of things from the daily life in Askum. I hope you understand why this is valuable, seeing as how wood is less durable than stone.
How about answering the questions, which again pertain to your very own claims…recalling,
Which Aksumite monument(s) are you referring to, and how is/are Aksumite monument(s) related to Egypt "anyway"?
quote:Doug M: Look at it this way, I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures.
Which timeframes, which hunter gatherers and nomads are being referred, and how have they “rarely settled down long enough to build such structures”. More words but no material!
quote:Doug M: All kidding and nonsense aside,
Which we've been getting on your end, right...
quote:Doug M: it depends on HOW you define a "culture". If you define a culture along the lines of a language family or broad collection of various ethnicities, then fine, that NARROWS the count to a smaller group. However, if you count cultures as small groupings of peoples with independent chiefs and different cultural practices, then the NUMBER can reach the ceiling. How do YOU define a culture?
In my mind, the cultures of Africa could be made up of groups as small as a few thousand on up to hundreds of thousands. Many would go "under the radar" since they are so small. In THAT sense there probably TOO many to name.
Good question about defining 'culture', which brings time and again, to those "MOST African cultures" at the "time of dynastic Egypt" that you keep blabbering about, but never specify them, much less corroborate your charges on them.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by osirion: We may see that the way of life of the AE were similar to Sub-Saharan Africans but I don't see the art style similarities. It seems to me that the style is an import from Eurasia.
Osirion, since when did "Sub-Saharan" art fall into one style?? Are there not many styles, since there are a myriad of "Sub-Saharan" cultures? Exactly what makes you think Egyptian style art comes from Eurasia??
quote:Ausar writes: Osirion, I already showed how ancient Egyptian artwork was similar in both the fertility figures and maternity figures. None of the following is found in Eur-asian cultures Matter of fact, it was actually the ancient Egyptians who influenced the Eur-asians with the Kuros statue figures.
Most of ancient Egyptian artwork in the various tombs are meant to be spirtual doubles of the person. It was believed that the ka of the deceased could enter the sculpture.
Everything in ancient Egyptian culture from the artwork down even the architecture had a spirtual meaning.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
Oh and Doug, Supercar is right.
There were various peoples in "Sub-Sahara" that employed stone building other than Nile Valley peoples (Egyptians & Kushites) and Aksumites. Various peoples from West Africa, through Central Africa, all the way down to Zibabwe in Southern Africa.
The problem is that not enough archaeological work is done in Africa, save the Nile Valley region especially Egypt.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti: Oh and Doug, Supercar is right.
There were various peoples in "Sub-Sahara" that employed stone building other than Nile Valley peoples (Egyptians & Kushites) and Aksumites. Various peoples from West Africa, through Central Africa, all the way down to Zibabwe in Southern Africa.
The problem is that not enough archaeological work is done in Africa, save the Nile Valley region especially Egypt.
How is he right? I can list a few hundred DIFFERENT ethnic groups, boiled down into about maybe 60 "cultures" JUST for NIGERIA. Do you mean to tell me that MOST of these cultures built in stone? That is a tall task. I would LIKE to beleive it, but the FACTS, especially from the period of history in question, are against it.
He still has to PROVE the point, not talk around it. Maybe we should take this to a new thread, since I REALLY would LIKE to dig into this deeper.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: How is he right? I can list a few hundred DIFFERENT ethnic groups, boiled down into about maybe 60 "cultures" JUST for NIGERIA. Do you mean to tell me that MOST of these cultures built in stone? That is a tall task. I would LIKE to beleive it, but the FACTS, especially from the period of history in question, are against it.
He still has to PROVE the point, not talk around it. Maybe we should take this to a new thread, since I REALLY would LIKE to dig into this deeper.
Of course not all Nigerians, but most Nigerian ethnic groups are descended from the ancient Nok culture which first used iron. And the Nok as well as many Nigerian groups did employ stone building. It may not have been impressive as Egypt but this still had it nontheless
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M:
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti: Oh and Doug, Supercar is right.
There were various peoples in "Sub-Sahara" that employed stone building other than Nile Valley peoples (Egyptians & Kushites) and Aksumites. Various peoples from West Africa, through Central Africa, all the way down to Zibabwe in Southern Africa.
The problem is that not enough archaeological work is done in Africa, save the Nile Valley region especially Egypt.
How is he right? I can list a few hundred DIFFERENT ethnic groups, boiled down into about maybe 60 "cultures" JUST for NIGERIA. Do you mean to tell me that MOST of these cultures built in stone? That is a tall task. I would LIKE to beleive it, but the FACTS, especially from the period of history in question, are against it.
He still has to PROVE the point, not talk around it. Maybe we should take this to a new thread, since I REALLY would LIKE to dig into this deeper.
I have nothing to prove, other than to continue to expose the fact that you don't know what the hell you are talking about. Case in point, we are into the second page of this topic, and We have yet to have an idea of what these "Most African cultures" are, what they comprised of, where these were located, what specific time frames [other than your vague talk of these coinciding with 'time of dynastic Egypt'. Dynastic Egypt encompasses a wide range of time frames; not a single.], not to mention why it is that they left no signs of their culture via artistic work.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti:
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: How is he right? I can list a few hundred DIFFERENT ethnic groups, boiled down into about maybe 60 "cultures" JUST for NIGERIA. Do you mean to tell me that MOST of these cultures built in stone? That is a tall task. I would LIKE to beleive it, but the FACTS, especially from the period of history in question, are against it.
He still has to PROVE the point, not talk around it. Maybe we should take this to a new thread, since I REALLY would LIKE to dig into this deeper.
Of course not all Nigerians, but most Nigerian ethnic groups are descended from the ancient Nok culture which first used iron. And the Nok as well as many Nigerian groups did employ stone building. It may not have been impressive as Egypt but this still had it nontheless.
It is not about whether it is as impressive as Egypt or not. All I said was that in Egypt, you can SEE the daily life of ancient Egypt carved in stone, so it makes it EASIER for us TODAY get a glimpse of the daily life and culture of ancient Egypt. The fact MOST other African cultures did not do the same thing is not a BAD thing, just makes it a little harder to uncover the data about daily life and culture for these groups.
When I made my statement, I made it based on NOT JUST the BIG groups we all know about, but ALL groups of varying sizes in Africa. I need to look at this further. There is too much information to dig through. My point is that it depends on how you define a culture or distinct ethnic group. Then you have to go back in time and determine whether the same groups existed or there were more. It is easy to SAY that most of the groups in Nigeria descended from the Nok, but that does not mean that they all built in stone either. In fact, many people say that one characteristic of culture in Africa is that many groups remained in small clans or villages, self sufficient and able to use the environment as part of their protection against enemies. Indeed THIS is why we need MORE archaeology on Africa. If we only focus on groups in Africa with maybe a Million or more, we are bypassing maybe hundreds of smaller groups that may only have numbered in the tens or hundreds of thousands. For each of those, you would have to track down and do the research on their origins and histories. Quite a lot of work indeed. On the other hand many of the larger groups may have absorbed smaller groups as time went on. Definitely not an easy task to unravel. I beleive that there are MORE cultures in Africa than the major groups we always here about like the Hausa, Yoruba, Dinka, Nuer, Nuba, Tuareg, etc.
Whether other Africans built in stone or not, it should not be interpereted as a qualitative observation. The fact that MOST African cultures did not leave a record in stone in of daily life and cultural activities is not a bad thing. It just makes the process of determining such a little more difficult, due to the nature of the materials involved.
quote: t should be noted, before going further, that many West African peoples did not choose the path of state formation (often said to be the path of 'civilizational development'), but instead created political systems based on elaborate kinship models that coupled local autonomy and wider networks to create viable political orders. It must be noted that in West Africa, even comparatively small communities could maintain their political independence by taking advantage of forest environments to shelter themselves from attack or takeover by more powerful neighbors.
Little material evidence is available to scholars working to reconstruct this era of West African prehistory, because so little archeological work has been done. However, what is known about changes in material culture and something of their implications for social change or artistic development can be briefly summarized for those areas where archaeologists have been at work. The principal ethno-linguistic groups whose material cultures are under discussion below.
This is not 100% true about African cultures never documented daily activities. For instance both the Yoruba people and people of Dahomey did carve bas-reliefs depiction various activities from war to spiritual ceremonies. Understand also that most contemporary Africans have a living traditions that have been documented and studied by anthropologist. The documents of daily life is not very necessary unless you have a dead culture like ancient Egypt or other cultures that have died out.
The information about ancient Western Africa is right there for you to reserch as long as you have acess to a library or published journal articles. If you want I can send you some articles about the Yoruba people I have collected. The Yoruba people have been the most studied group in Western Africa.
Other way to uncover historical data is through a methodology called historical linguistics. Through such methology you can uncover certain aspects of Western African traditions.
Posted by osirion (Member # 7644) on :
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti:
quote:Originally posted by osirion: We may see that the way of life of the AE were similar to Sub-Saharan Africans but I don't see the art style similarities. It seems to me that the style is an import from Eurasia.
Osirion, since when did "Sub-Saharan" art fall into one style?? Are there not many styles, since there are a myriad of "Sub-Saharan" cultures? Exactly what makes you think Egyptian style art comes from Eurasia??
quote:Ausar writes: Osirion, I already showed how ancient Egyptian artwork was similar in both the fertility figures and maternity figures. None of the following is found in Eur-asian cultures Matter of fact, it was actually the ancient Egyptians who influenced the Eur-asians with the Kuros statue figures.
Most of ancient Egyptian artwork in the various tombs are meant to be spirtual doubles of the person. It was believed that the ka of the deceased could enter the sculpture.
Everything in ancient Egyptian culture from the artwork down even the architecture had a spirtual meaning.
Where is the abstract AE art that is similar to what we see in Sub-Saharan art?
Posted by alTakruri (Member # 10195) on :
Aren't farmers indicative of the subsistence of most African cultures out numbering foragers and pastoralists combined?
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: ... I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures. . . . .
But back to the thread and the topic.
Posted by Thought2 (Member # 4256) on :
quote:Originally posted by osirion: Where is the abstract AE art that is similar to what we see in Sub-Saharan art?
Thought Writes:
If by "Art" you mean artifacts, then one clear example is the harps of Buganda and Ancient Egypt. Another example is the headrests of the Ancient Egyptians and southern Sudanese. How many examples do you need?
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by ausar: Hello Doug,
This is not 100% true about African cultures never documented daily activities. For instance both the Yoruba people and people of Dahomey did carve bas-reliefs depiction various activities from war to spiritual ceremonies. Understand also that most contemporary Africans have a living traditions that have been documented and studied by anthropologist. The documents of daily life is not very necessary unless you have a dead culture like ancient Egypt or other cultures that have died out.
The information about ancient Western Africa is right there for you to reserch as long as you have acess to a library or published journal articles. If you want I can send you some articles about the Yoruba people I have collected. The Yoruba people have been the most studied group in Western Africa.
Other way to uncover historical data is through a methodology called historical linguistics. Through such methology you can uncover certain aspects of Western African traditions.
Sure, I would appreciate the info However, the issue is cultural similarities between Egypt and other parts of Africa, not whether I am the foremost expert on African cultures and the methods used to study such cultures.
Posted by Thought2 (Member # 4256) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: ... I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures.
Thought Writes:
Actually, you may need to do more research on the basic principles of human anthropology. There is a positive correlation between neolithic subsistence patterns and population growth. Hence, we see the dominance of genetic lineages associated with farmers in Africa (Haplogroup E), versus the genetic lineages associated with hunter gatherers (Haplogroup A and B).
Posted by Thought2 (Member # 4256) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: However, the issue is cultural similarities between Egypt and other parts of Africa, not whether I am the foremost expert on African cultures...
Thought Writes:
How can one recognize the cultural similarities between Egypt and other parts of Africa without being a expert on African cultures? How would one be able to recognize these similarities if one is ignorant of African culture in general?
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by alTakruri: Aren't farmers indicative of the subsistence of most African cultures out numbering foragers and pastoralists combined?
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: ... I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures. . . . .
But back to the thread and the topic.
It is about when and where. Until recently, the begining of agriculture was always thought to have begun OUTSIDE of Africa. Of course up to date research is proving that false, but there needs to be more research done. Agriculture is a key event in the development of human populations, however, it is also well known that there were many pastoral groups up to and after the development of organized agriculture. I actually believe that people planting crops is far older than we think, because it may have occurred on a much smaller scale, at earlier points in history than we NOW have evidence for. Most of the evidence we have for agriculture is associated with the development of complex societies, hence, agriculture is a key aspect in tracing the development of modern civilizations. That does not mean that people were not planting things on a much smaller scale at scattered points in history PRIOR to the development of complex social structures.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
Doug M: posted this from a link:
quote:t should be noted, before going further, that many West African peoples did not choose the path of state formation (often said to be the path of 'civilizational development'), but instead created political systems based on elaborate kinship models that coupled local autonomy and wider networks to create viable political orders.
What do you think the likes of Ghana, Songhay or Mali were all about?
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by ausar: Hello Doug,
This is not 100% true about African cultures never documented daily activities. For instance both the Yoruba people and people of Dahomey did carve bas-reliefs depiction various activities from war to spiritual ceremonies. Understand also that most contemporary Africans have a living traditions that have been documented and studied by anthropologist. The documents of daily life is not very necessary unless you have a dead culture like ancient Egypt or other cultures that have died out.
The information about ancient Western Africa is right there for you to **reserch** as long as you have acess to a library or published journal articles. If you want I can send you some articles about the Yoruba people I have collected. The Yoruba people have been the most studied group in Western Africa.
Other way to uncover historical data is through a methodology called historical linguistics. Through such methology you can uncover certain aspects of Western African traditions.
You can say it again.
Posted by alTakruri (Member # 10195) on :
Aren't farmers indicative of the subsistence of most African cultures out numbering foragers and pastoralists combined?
Can you answer the question please? The consideration made about where and when is just as applicable to foragers and pastoralist. The claim that "MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures" was made without regard to location or era.
Also the concept of a "neolithic revolution" is outdated now. Foragers made the first settlements and permanent housing structures. Agriculture could not begin without permanent settlement of people to tend gardens and fields.
And, I think, African pastoralist, especially herders, are predominantly transhumant instead of actually nomadic.
Another thing to bear in mind is that these three basic methods of food procurement are not mutually exclusive. Gathering, hunting, shepherding, herding, farming, can all be practiced in a single culture pending the desired taste for the evening's meal. Even in post-industrial cultures if you have a yen for venison you most likely will have to hunt the deer down.
quote:Originally posted by Doug M:
quote:Originally posted by alTakruri: Aren't farmers indicative of the subsistence of most African cultures out numbering foragers and pastoralists combined?
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: ... I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures. . . . .
But back to the thread and the topic.
It is about when and where. Until recently, the begining of agriculture was always thought to have begun OUTSIDE of Africa. Of course up to date research is proving that false, but there needs to be more research done. Agriculture is a key event in the development of human populations, however, it is also well known that there were many pastoral groups up to and after the development of organized agriculture. I actually believe that people planting crops is far older than we think, because it may have occurred on a much smaller scale, at earlier points in history than we NOW have evidence for. Most of the evidence we have for agriculture is associated with the development of complex societies, hence, agriculture is a key aspect in tracing the development of modern civilizations. That does not mean that people were not planting things on a much smaller scale at scattered points in history PRIOR to the development of complex social structures.
Posted by alTakruri (Member # 10195) on :
Doug M is quite right though his wording is incorrect. Besides, he's not saying Africa only had rulerless societies.
One of the triumphant aspects of African social thought is the fact of its complex asephalous states. This is nothing to deny or be defensive against.
quote:Originally posted by Supercar: Doug M: posted this from a link:
quote:t should be noted, before going further, that many West African peoples did not choose the path of state formation (often said to be the path of 'civilizational development'), but instead created political systems based on elaborate kinship models that coupled local autonomy and wider networks to create viable political orders.
What do you think the likes of Ghana, Songhay or Mali were all about?
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by alTakruri: Doug M is quite right though his wording is incorrect. Besides, he's not saying Africa only had rulerless societies.
And who said that he was saying that?
quote:alTakruri: One of the triumphant aspects of African social thinking is the fact of its complex asephalous states. This is nothing to deny or be defensive against.
quote:Supercar: What do you think the likes of Ghana, Songhay or Mali were all about?
Are you suggesting that the aforementioned cultural entities are examples of acephalous states?
Posted by alTakruri (Member # 10195) on :
No time for games. You know quite well that empires are not acephalous.
When acephalous states were mentioned you brought up three major West African empires as if to propose that there were not complex acephalous states in Africa, i.e., that Africa only had states with heads of state?
Is that what you were trying to get across?
quote:Originally posted by Supercar:
quote:Originally posted by alTakruri: Doug M is quite right though his wording is incorrect. Besides, he's not saying Africa only had rulerless societies.
And who said that he was saying that?
quote:alTakruri: One of the triumphant aspects of African social thinking is the fact of its complex asephalous states. This is nothing to deny or be defensive against.
quote:Supercar: What do you think the likes of Ghana, Songhay or Mali were all about?
Are you suggesting that the aforementioned cultural entities are examples of acephalous states?
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: ... I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures. . . . .
But back to the thread and the topic.
According to the latest evidence, agriculture was invented in several areas of Africa independently. In the Sahara, Ethiopia, and West Africa. There could be other areas as well that haven't discovered, so how did you come about this generalization that most Africans were either foragers or pastoralists??
In fact the majority of Africans today have had a longstanding tradition of agriculture, most of this having to do with the Bantu expansion.
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by alTakruri: No time for games.
...unless of course, you are engaged in one I am not yet aware of!
quote:alTakruri: You know quite well that empires are not acephalous.
Indeed. It makes me wonder about your response to my mentioning of those examples, as states!
quote:alTakruri: When acephalous states were mentioned...
Which acephalous states were mentioned?
quote:alTakruri: ...you brought up three major West African empires as if to propose that there were not complex acephalous states in Africa, i.e., that Africa only had states with heads of state?
Is that what you were trying to get across?
Your assumption, since there is nowhere in my post, that there was no such thing as acephalous societies in Africa. The question should rather be, what does your comments have anything to do with mine?
Posted by alTakruri (Member # 10195) on :
quote:Originally posted by Supercar: The question should rather be, what does your comments have anything to do with mine?
My exact reaction when I read your reaction quoted below which had absolutely nothing to do with my statements:
quote:Supercar wrote: What do you think the likes of Ghana, Songhay or Mali were all about?
quote:Supercar wrote: Are you suggesting that the aforementioned cultural entities are examples of acephalous states?
Posted by Supercar (Member # 6477) on :
quote:Originally posted by alTakruri:
quote:Originally posted by Supercar: The question should rather be, what does your comments have anything to do with mine?
My exact reaction when I read your reaction quoted below which had absolutely nothing to do with my statements:
quote:Supercar wrote: What do you think the likes of Ghana, Songhay or Mali were all about?
quote:Supercar wrote: Are you suggesting that the aforementioned cultural entities are examples of [b]acephalous states?
If what you say is to make any sense, then your reaction is indicative of a confused individual. If your comment had nothing to do with mine in the first place, then why quote me and make your comment?
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti:
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: ... I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures. . . . .
But back to the thread and the topic.
According to the latest evidence, agriculture was invented in several areas of Africa independently. In the Sahara, Ethiopia, and West Africa. There could be other areas as well that haven't discovered, so how did you come about this generalization that most Africans were either foragers or pastoralists??
In fact the majority of Africans today have had a longstanding tradition of agriculture, most of this having to do with the Bantu expansion.
Interesting. Where is your evidence for this?
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by Supercar:
quote:Originally posted by ausar: Hello Doug,
This is not 100% true about African cultures never documented daily activities. For instance both the Yoruba people and people of Dahomey did carve bas-reliefs depiction various activities from war to spiritual ceremonies. Understand also that most contemporary Africans have a living traditions that have been documented and studied by anthropologist. The documents of daily life is not very necessary unless you have a dead culture like ancient Egypt or other cultures that have died out.
The information about ancient Western Africa is right there for you to **reserch** as long as you have acess to a library or published journal articles. If you want I can send you some articles about the Yoruba people I have collected. The Yoruba people have been the most studied group in Western Africa.
Other way to uncover historical data is through a methodology called historical linguistics. Through such methology you can uncover certain aspects of Western African traditions.
You can say it again.
It is not about how much I have studied West Africa, it is about how much of a relationship Egypt has to other parts of Africa. To be specific, my opinion is that the tradition of Egyptians carving scenes of daily life can be traced to the traditions of the Saharan populations that left scenes of daily life in their rock art. Am I an expert on Saharan rock art, no. But is that my opinion, yes. Therefore, it is not about me becoming an expert in Saharan rock art. It is about me being able to show the facts that I use to back up such an opinion.
Likewise, my opinion about Egyptians having scenes of daily life carved in stone on the walls of temples and tombs as being UNLIKE most African cultures is also an opinion. MOST ancient African cultures DID NOT carve scenes in stone on their monuments. If you feel this is incorrect, then prove me wrong, by showing me information that contradicts this. Otherwise, saying I should STUDY West Africa or some other such thing, in this case only covers for the LACK of evidence on your part to refute my opinion.
I STILL say that MOST African cultures, especially around 1000 BC did not build in stone and those that did DID NOT carve scenes of everyday life on the walls like the Egyptians. If ANYONE can PROVIDE EVIDENCE to the contrary, then fine I will be refuted. Up to this point, NO ONE has.
Posted by Doug M (Member # 7650) on :
quote:Originally posted by alTakruri: Aren't farmers indicative of the subsistence of most African cultures out numbering foragers and pastoralists combined?
Can you answer the question please? The consideration made about where and when is just as applicable to foragers and pastoralist. The claim that "MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures" was made without regard to location or era.
Also the concept of a "neolithic revolution" is outdated now. Foragers made the first settlements and permanent housing structures. Agriculture could not begin without permanent settlement of people to tend gardens and fields.
And, I think, African pastoralist, especially herders, are predominantly transhumant instead of actually nomadic.
Another thing to bear in mind is that these three basic methods of food procurement are not mutually exclusive. Gathering, hunting, shepherding, herding, farming, can all be practiced in a single culture pending the desired taste for the evening's meal. Even in post-industrial cultures if you have a yen for venison you most likely will have to hunt the deer down.
quote:Originally posted by Doug M:
quote:Originally posted by alTakruri: Aren't farmers indicative of the subsistence of most African cultures out numbering foragers and pastoralists combined?
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: ... I believe that MOST cultures in Africa were hunter gatherers and pastorial nomads, who RARELY settled down LONG ENOUGH to build such structures. . . . .
But back to the thread and the topic.
It is about when and where. Until recently, the begining of agriculture was always thought to have begun OUTSIDE of Africa. Of course up to date research is proving that false, but there needs to be more research done. Agriculture is a key event in the development of human populations, however, it is also well known that there were many pastoral groups up to and after the development of organized agriculture. I actually believe that people planting crops is far older than we think, because it may have occurred on a much smaller scale, at earlier points in history than we NOW have evidence for. Most of the evidence we have for agriculture is associated with the development of complex societies, hence, agriculture is a key aspect in tracing the development of modern civilizations. That does not mean that people were not planting things on a much smaller scale at scattered points in history PRIOR to the development of complex social structures.
Yes I agree that farming is a relatively settled activity. I also agree that there were MANY African groups that were practicing farming at an early period. That is WHY I stated the following:
quote: Agriculture is a key event in the development of human populations, however, it is also well known that there were many pastoral groups up to and after the development of organized agriculture. I actually believe that people planting crops is far older than we think, because it may have occurred on a much smaller scale, at earlier points in history than we NOW have evidence for.
Meaning that, like you said, pastoralism and subsistence agriculture are not mutually exclusive and that many of our modern ideas on ancient agriculture are tied to European definitions of historical processes associated with development of "complex" civilizations.
Also, just because a community was settled or practiced agriculture, does not mean that they built in stone. Many could have used wood, mud brick or grass to build complex communities. The point being that when someone wants to find evidence of "complex" societies, they may look for evidence of stone building before evidence of wood building. Likewise, because wood and such easily decay, much evidence may have been lost over time of complex compounds which could give us a better idea of the development of African societies. So I agree that it is not accurate to say that it is a difference of pastoral/sedentary populations that would have led to the absence of stone building in most African cultures around 1000BC. There are many other factors that go into it.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti: According to the latest evidence, agriculture was invented in several areas of Africa independently. In the Sahara, Ethiopia, and West Africa. There could be other areas as well that haven't discovered, so how did you come about this generalization that most Africans were either foragers or pastoralists??
In fact the majority of Africans today have had a longstanding tradition of agriculture, most of this having to do with the Bantu expansion.
Posted by alTakruri (Member # 10195) on :
Well, I don't approach the study of Africa from a penis envy level where everything is measured up to Europe's yardstick.
But all punning aside, neither architecture in stone nor majestic heads of state are necessary for benchmarking Africa's societies or "states". This is to say that as far as I can see, monumental stone cutting for public commemoration on the level of KM.t hardly exist outside of a few metro urban centers on any continent.
And yes, in general and for many reasons, Africa outside of the Nile Valley and later in time than KM.t didn't care as much for varied and lasting material productions as other continents did. Which is not to say they didn't have any because we know full well they did.
Yet I need not be reactionary and feel the need to "prove" Africa is equal or has the same developments as Asia or Europe that "hallowed benchmark" so many still hold up as "highest of the high". No, by doing that I would only miss out on the true unique value only Africa can offer and instead be off chasing white ghosts instead of heeding ancestral cries.
So those Africans who had stone or could get stone and valued stone used it for building (there are many stone sites scattered over the continent) and when they pleased, for engraving.
Likewise for those who chose mud brick or chose wood, or chose wattle, or who chose hide, for Africans did built with those more so than with stone.
I don't need an outlook on Africa that makes me fabricate multistorey stone dwellings or else Africa is inferior because I worship Europe/Asia and Europe/Asia abounds with such edifices and so every culure what don't build that way must be primitive or backward and I don't want to appear inferior/primitive/backward. Why you've accepted the game on Eurocentric terms!
No the African sees the complex beauty of his own through his own eyes not through imported foreign spectacles which frame a reference inadequite to appreciate what's right before the eyes.
A chess master from Europe/America/Australia visits rural inner Africa and observes a wari type game played in the dirt. Little pits dug in the dirt and pebbles may be all the gaming "pieces" he sees.
[At this point some of you are now having a knee jerk reaction and can only think on Europe's terms and so you want to interject and go on and on about the fine cast metal chess pieces made in West Africa or the high qaulity fine wooden and semi-precious stone wari sets. And in thinking that way you don't get it at all]
In cultural chauvinistic contempt he dismisses wari as below his gamesmen's application as a child invites him to squat and play. Not wanting to appear aloof he humours the kid and listens to the very simple mechanics of "cows and kraals". In his mind he thinks, how simple for me a chessmaster to instantly thoroughly understand this stupid native game and beat its best player less lone this child.
Come that night he drinks calabash after calabash of palm wine to drown his embarassment, all the while wondering how that kid could beat him over and over again, and in so few moves no less, as his hosts good naturedly rib him with praise while somewhere some guy improvises an ode to the Great Chessmaster who couldn't win wari once.
And so it is with architecture and public monuments, in trying to show a measure similar to Europe/Asia we miss what genius has gone into the commonmost.
So what if Africa isn't overflowing with "impressive" KM.t/Kush/Axum type monumental stone ruins or multistorey Swahili type houses or zemba bwe wallings? So what!
Its the people and the social order where its really at.
quote:Originally posted by Doug M: Meaning that, like you said, pastoralism and subsistence agriculture are not mutually exclusive and that many of our modern ideas on ancient agriculture are tied to European definitions of historical processes associated with development of "complex" civilizations.
Also, just because a community was settled or practiced agriculture, does not mean that they built in stone. Many could have used wood, mud brick or grass to build complex communities. The point being that when someone wants to find evidence of "complex" societies, they may look for evidence of stone building before evidence of wood building. Likewise, because wood and such easily decay, much evidence may have been lost over time of complex compounds which could give us a better idea of the development of African societies. So I agree that it is not accurate to say that it is a difference of pastoral/sedentary populations that would have led to the absence of stone building in most African cultures around 1000BC. There are many other factors that go into it. [/QB]
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
quote:Originally posted by ausar: Pax Dahomenias, I would appreciate if you or others would be kind enough to tell us more about these connections.
Hi Ausar and others, I'll try to post some informations about it at the end of the week. Please stay tuned.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
Hello all, There are several sources dealing with cultural comparative studies between Kmt and traditional other African cultures. Unfortunately I only have a few of them at home so the following information will be largely incomplete. Most of the following information is taken from Egyptologists Aboubacry Moussa Lam, Oum Ndigi and Jean Charles Coovi Gomez' francophone works. I have found myself a lot of other similarities but as I plan to publish them in the future, I don't want to post them on here for now.
I'll post some other infos later.
Myra and others: I have an anglophone article about masks in Kmt and modern Africa at home, please let me know via PM if you're interested in it.
I)Pantheon and Mythology: Many Kemetic deities are still worshipped in modern Africa.Here are a few. Oum Ndigi demonstrated by showing ten homophones of Geb's names identical to their counterparts in Basaa which are also homophones of a Basaa deity called Koba, that Geb and Koba are the very same deity. He also pointed out some mythological parallelisms such as the identification of Geb and Koba to the Time,to a goose sitting on the Primordial egg, to the fifth of the Primordial ancestors,etc...
Aboubacry Moussa Lam pointed out some striking resemblances between Dogon and Kemetic mythologies. Like in Kmt, the Dogon creation began with primordial waters (called Nommo in the Dogon language ,a word related to the kmtic Nwmw which would most logically be the actual translitteration of one of the mdw ntr usually translitterated by Egyptologists as "Nwnw"(Nun)), which are "populated" in both areas by reptile-like creatures. From these waters came out eight creatures that came to life as couples:they are thus an ogdoad but become an ennead along with the creator god just like in Kmt. The supreme God of Dogon people is called Amma, a name related to 'Imn(Amun) according to Théophile Obenga and both Gods do use their penises and speech to create. Like Amun who was invoked by Pharaohs to make the level of water rise, Amma is a water god. Still according to French Africanist Marcel Griaule, Amma is a ram wearing a calabash between his horns representing the sun.We all know that Amun was often depicted as a Ram wearing but he actually wasn't before the New Kingdom:he was only a provincial unsolarized deity and wasn't assimilated to the ram back then.It would thus mean that contacts between the two populations occured after the NK.Pic of Amen-Ra at Abu Simbel:
Recently, Théophile Obenga said that the name of the supreme God of Dagari people of Burkina Faso was Myin and that this name was related to 'Imn.Interestingly enough, Myin is also considered to be the sun to Dagari people. Perhaps some meticulous comparative researchs about Myin and Amun could lead to the same conclusion as the relationship between Amun & Amma.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
^^ Pax, while I agree that some African gods may have a connection to Egyptian gods like Amun, I would be cautious in trying to connect them to Dynastic Egypt.
Rather, I believe such connections come from prehistoric periods and especially connections via the Sahara. There is evidence of Nubians worshipping a god identified with Amun as well as ancient Libyans around Siwa.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
I understand your cautiousness Djehuti but I believe that Amma's description, as well as its relationship to the Nommo and the eight primordial ancestors is definitely dynastic Egyptian.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: I understand your cautiousness Djehuti but I believe that Amma's description, as well as its relationship to the Nommo and the eight primordial ancestors is definitely dynastic Egyptian.
If so, then what is the evidence to suggest that the Dogon had contact with dynastic Egypt?? Which culture are you suggesting first had these religious concepts??
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
II)Conception of death
Kemetians had a conception of death quite similar to that of modern Africans. According to this page:
quote: Because Re was Atum as well as Amun, people saw him as simply another form of the Creator god. Because he traveled each day through the heavens, he was also the god of time. The “birth” and “death” of the sun each day helped the Egyptians to understand time, life, death, and resurrection. The sun gave the Egyptians confidence that life never ended, and that death was merely another form of life. The Kushites shared the same beliefs.
About the BaKongo people of Central Africa, this page says:
quote:Life in that sense is a cyclical and repetitive movement between the two worlds mentioned above, resembling the path of the sun. At the rising and setting of the sun then, the living and the dead exchange day and night. In Kongo belief, man's life does not end, it constitutes a cycle, and death is merely a transition in the process of change. Following that belief, a man's soul does not dwell in the grave after his death but leaves it to become a ghost (n'kuyu) in the land of the dead, which is called ku mpemba a fula.
Akh:
quote: This was the form in which the blessed dead lived on in the hereafter. It was also the result of the union between the Ba and the Ka. An Akh was believed to live on unharmed for eternity, they were sometimes referred to as 'The Shining Ones'.
French Africanist Louis Vincent Thomas reported a fon chant describing death(ku) as an illumination after which life would no more lived be into darkness.
quote: According to Egyptian beliefs, the soul of the dead accompanied the sun on its eternal journey in the Upper Waters (the heavens) around the world. A boat or at least a model of a boat was therefore included in every tomb.
Beninese anthropologist B.Adoukonou reported that the dead had to travel with a boat to the world of the deads. Many people of modern day Africa do use the same term as the Md Ntr "akh" meaning "to become a spirit",e.g. ku le-ku Of this word are also derived terms meaning "ghost" in these languages e.g. kutito(fon-gbe),okue(mbochi) just like akhu(ghost) derives from akh in the Mdw Ntr.
When French missionaries discovered the term "okue", they systematically and erroneously translated it by "devil". Interestingly in Coptic, akhu also means "devil "although we know that they were definitely considered as such during pharaonic Times. Perhaps the Christians who evangelized both Kemetians and Mbochi people had the same reaction vis à vis of the same concept.
A representation of an animated Djed Pillar:
A Kutito/Egungun ceremony in Porto Novo,Benin:
In Togo,Benin and Nigeria, the Kutito(among Gbe speaking people) and Egungun (among Yoruba speaking people) are masked dancing ancestors returning to earth to help and punish living people. Jean Charles Coovi Gomez pointed out that this ceremony was exactly the same as what we know of Kemetic "raising the Djed Pillar Ceremony".
Egungun ,the Yoruba name of the ceremony means "bone, skeleton". In Kmt, the Djed pillar was considered as the backbone of the neter Ausar. There is ample evidence for mummification in traditional Africa.Félix Dubois reported it among Songhoi people, M.Delafosse among Baule(Akan) people of Ivory Coast, A.M.L Desplagnes among the Dogon and Mossi, J.C.C.Gomez among the Yoruba.
Mummy of the Obi Ijeh of Idumuoghu,Ibusa, Nigeria
More to come...
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
^^Yes all of these similarities imply a connection to Egypt, but again where is the evidence to show that this was with dynastic Egypt instead of a prehistoric African connection??
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis:
I find this mummy of a West African royal especially interesting, showing that West Africans also had a concern for preserving the dead of their rulers.
Posted by ausar (Member # 1797) on :
Here is a reference that I found in mainstream Egyptology publication comparing kingship in ancient Km.t and other contemporary African kingdoms:
94.1021 BONHÊME, Marie-Ange, Appétit de roi, in: Hommages Leclant 2, 45-53. Discussion of the theme "eating the kingship," a practice attested in Papyrus Brooklyn (47.218.50, col. XVI, 6-7) describing the rites of the "confirmation of the royal power in the New Year." In these rites the king is eating the jAw.t/jA.t symbol in bread. There seem to be some similarities between the described Egyptian rites and the conception and practice of "eating the kingship" in certain African kingdoms. M.W.K.
Do you have acess to this articles,Pax Dahomenias? If you do is there any way to scan it or translate at least some of it?
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
quote:Originally posted by ausar: Do you have acess to this articles,Pax Dahomenias? If you do is there any way to scan it or translate at least some of it?
Yep, but It will probably take some time. I'll keep you updated.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by ausar: Here is a reference that I found in mainstream Egyptology publication comparing kingship in ancient Km.t and other contemporary African kingdoms:
94.1021 BONHÊME, Marie-Ange, Appétit de roi, in: Hommages Leclant 2, 45-53. Discussion of the theme "eating the kingship," a practice attested in Papyrus Brooklyn (47.218.50, col. XVI, 6-7) describing the rites of the "confirmation of the royal power in the New Year." In these rites the king is eating the jAw.t/jA.t symbol in bread. There seem to be some similarities between the described Egyptian rites and the conception and practice of "eating the kingship" in certain African kingdoms. M.W.K.
Which symbol was this, Ausar?
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
Djehuti: Some cultural elements that refer to specific Dynastic Egypt evolutions do imply a Dynastic contact with African people. As I said I don't want to post them on here for now but I promise I'll keep you updated when I'll publish them.
Sorry.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
Aboubacry Moussa Lam pointed out the resemblance between the kmtic khepesh and this weapon held by Mangbetu King Munza:
More to come.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
From Oscar Pfouma "Histoire culturelle de l'Afrique Noire":
quote: The Dogon sign "gono" or "gonono",written at the end of the Sigi Time (sixty years) and identical to the Egyptian "ânkh" represents God after he created the world. Ancient Egyptians also celebrated, each sixty years, a ceremony called "hn" representing the renewing of the world. The osirian rite Sâh and the Dogon Sigi are isomorphic. The relationship between AE and modern Black Africa is irrefutable. Dogon gonono:"a 60 years time" Egypt hnn:"a 60 years time"(Budge) Dogon Sigi Egypt sâh Dogon Naporo=Osiris Egypt Npr=Osiris(E.Naville)
The Egyptian word for deity but also pharaoh, Ntr is also found in modern BA languages as thus:
BA and AE religious customs are exactly the same;Hermopolitan cosmogony is found among Northern Cameroon populations.According to M.Maubert "Coutumes du Gurma": "it is impossible(...)even for a layman, to not mention(...) AE, more precisely Hermopolis in Middle Egypt, whose specialists tell us that its cosmogony was about some elements (...)very similar to those we had the surprise to found among Fali people.A primordial egg or "Mother Egg".Two waters existing before everything, (...)"Waters containing waiting germs of creation(...) the only trait common to all the AE cosmogonies(...)" Existence of two lands and four rivers. The intervention of an ogdoad, whose members ,the organizers of the world who worked to built the more or less complete state of the world we know today(...) were originally one and same divinity but represented four entities and finally four couples(...), each couple representing the male and female aspect of one of the other entities(...) The classical iconography shows this eight characters as strange anthropomorphic creatures(...) frog-headed men, snake-headed women in Egypt and are described as crawling beasts living in muddy waters in Cameroon. Even the black ape, mentioned by Lebeuf reminds us of Thot, the baboon-headed god of Hermopolis."
The name of Thot(Greek name for Djehuti) is still found in Modern BA:Zukta, Zigta,(Muhuleh), Jukta(Jukun).
More to come.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
Djehuti: Do you agree with most Egyptologists that the concept of the Nun was inspired by the vision of the Nile in spate?
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: Aboubacry Moussa Lam pointed out the resemblance between the kmtic khepesh and this weapon held by Mangbetu King Munza:
That weapon (scyth) is also an agricultural tool and is shown wielded by kings from earlier periods.
Agriculture as been around since the predynastic era and agriculture may have once been practiced in the Sahara. Thus a prehistoric overall African connection.
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: From Oscar Pfouma "Histoire culturelle de l'Afrique Noire":
[QUOTE] The Dogon sign "gono" or "gonono",written at the end of the Sigi Time (sixty years) and identical to the Egyptian "ânkh" represents God after he created the world. Ancient Egyptians also celebrated, each sixty years, a ceremony called "hn" representing the renewing of the world. The osirian rite Sâh and the Dogon Sigi are isomorphic. The relationship between AE and modern Black Africa is irrefutable. Dogon gonono:"a 60 years time" Egypt hnn:"a 60 years time"(Budge) Dogon Sigi Egypt sâh Dogon Naporo=Osiris Egypt Npr=Osiris(E.Naville)
The Egyptian word for deity but also pharaoh, Ntr is also found in modern BA languages as thus:
BA and AE religious customs are exactly the same;Hermopolitan cosmogony is found among Northern Cameroon populations.According to M.Maubert "Coutumes du Gurma": "it is impossible(...)even for a layman, to not mention(...) AE, more precisely Hermopolis in Middle Egypt, whose specialists tell us that its cosmogony was about some elements (...)very similar to those we had the surprise to found among Fali people.A primordial egg or "Mother Egg".Two waters existing before everything, (...)"Waters containing waiting germs of creation(...) the only trait common to all the AE cosmogonies(...)" Existence of two lands and four rivers. The intervention of an ogdoad, whose members ,the organizers of the world who worked to built the more or less complete state of the world we know today(...) were originally one and same divinity but represented four entities and finally four couples(...), each couple representing the male and female aspect of one of the other entities(...) The classical iconography shows this eight characters as strange anthropomorphic creatures(...) frog-headed men, snake-headed women in Egypt and are described as crawling beasts living in muddy waters in Cameroon. Even the black ape, mentioned by Lebeuf reminds us of Thot, the baboon-headed god of Hermopolis."
The name of Thot(Greek name for Djehuti) is still found in Modern BA:Zukta, Zigta,(Muhuleh), Jukta(Jukun).
Words for 'gods' or 'divine' are even more ancient in origin still. Such word similarities only proves a prehistoric connection instead of a dynastic one.
Besides, weren't YOU the one that cautioned me about using simple word comparisons, even though the example I used was between Egyptian and Somali-- two languages which we know are closely related!
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: Djehuti: Do you agree with most Egyptologists that the concept of the Nun was inspired by the vision of the Nile in spate?
Yes, but I don't see what this has to do with your premise. The Egyptians concieved Nun as the primeval waters. There are many cultures outside of Africa that held similar mythological beliefs. But especially an ancient belief in primeval orgins again could only point to prehistoric connections. Do you realize that there were many lakes and rivers in holocene Sahara?
It seems that you are espousing the diffusion theory, that whatever similarities other African cultures have to Egypt is derived from Egypt during dynastic times. Why not accept the fact that such connection reach further back in time to when Egypt didn't even exist?
So far all of the examples you have provided-- the agricultural tool/weapon, similar words for god, and words for a watery primeval origin hark back to times way before the dynastic era.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
Djehuti: To be really honest, I have never said I agreed with Pfouma's method. For example, I've noticed that a lot of the words he compared with Egyptian, like Fon-Gbe "hwenu e dja" supposedly similar with kmtic "hnty dj" both meaning "future" are actually unrelated since the Fon word is a compound word.I'm just trying to make francophone documentation about the thread launched by Ausar available for everyone on this board. Take it as you want.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
You're misunderstanding the point of my posts here. Ausar started a thread quoting me about the cultural similarities between AE and modern Africa some cannot being explained by a 6000+ years old separation IMO. I've never said all the information I'd provide would prove that the concerned people came from KMT.
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti:
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: Djehuti: Do you agree with most Egyptologists that the concept of the Nun was inspired by the vision of the Nile in spate?
Yes, but I don't see what this has to do with your premise. The Egyptians concieved Nun as the primeval waters. There are many cultures outside of Africa that held similar mythological beliefs. But especially an ancient belief in primeval orgins again could only point to prehistoric connections. Do you realize that there were many lakes and rivers in holocene Sahara?
It seems that you are espousing the diffusion theory, that whatever similarities other African cultures have to Egypt is derived from Egypt during dynastic times. Why not accept the fact that such connection reach further back in time to when Egypt didn't even exist?
So far all of the examples you have provided-- the agricultural tool/weapon, similar words for god, and words for a watery primeval origin hark back to times way before the dynastic era.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
Now I would like you to tell me how idiomatic expressions identical by both sound and meaning such as these can be found among languages that haven't been in contact for more than 6000 years.
Mdw Ntr: her,"head" Pulaar(Fulani dialect spoken in Senegal) hoore,"head"
Mdw Ntr: spd"pointed" Pulaar(Fulani dialect spoken in Senegal) seebde,"pointed"
Mdw Ntr: seped her,"clever" Pulaar(Fulani dialect) seebde hoore,"to be clever"
By the way I don't remember reading from any Afrasian study that Kmtic Ra & Somali Qor-Rax for sun are cognates.
Posted by osirion (Member # 7644) on :
What can we say about musical similarities between Kemet and the rest of Africa???
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
Well, that was not my point at all, It's just as you seemed knowledgeable about mythologies, I wanted to have a discussion on a point with you, but since you seem more interested in pointing out "contradictions" or "errors" on other people's discourses, then go for it. And don't forget to start caring about yours.
quote:Originally posted by Djehuti:
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: Djehuti: Do you agree with most Egyptologists that the concept of the Nun was inspired by the vision of the Nile in spate?
Yes, but I don't see what this has to do with your premise. The Egyptians concieved Nun as the primeval waters. There are many cultures outside of Africa that held similar mythological beliefs. But especially an ancient belief in primeval orgins again could only point to prehistoric connections. Do you realize that there were many lakes and rivers in holocene Sahara?
Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: Egyptian/Maori relationship: Physically:
^^Sorry, but the physical similarities escape me!! As for cultural similarities, which ones are those? LOL Posted by Djehuti (Member # 6698) on :
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: Well, that was not my point at all, It's just as you seemed knowledgeable about mythologies, I wanted to have a discussion on a point with you, but since you seem more interested in pointing out "contradictions" or "errors" on other people's discourses, then go for it. And don't forget to start caring about yours.
Actually I never said that anything you've presented was an error or contradiction, on the contrary I have already known about such similarities! I am merely stating that non them really show evidence of influence from dynastic Egypt.
Posted by Pax Dahomensis (Member # 9851) on :
OK, sorry for the misunderstanding. The Fulani stuff from Lam I've posted refutes your claim IMO though. These idioms are irrefutably related in some way to Kemetic's and as far I know, are not reconstructable for any earlier state of Dynastic Egyptian language.
Posted by Awuo (Member # 13984) on :
quote:Originally posted by Pax Dahomensis: From Oscar Pfouma "Histoire culturelle de l'Afrique Noire":
quote: The Dogon sign "gono" or "gonono",written at the end of the Sigi Time (sixty years) and identical to the Egyptian "ânkh" represents God after he created the world. Ancient Egyptians also celebrated, each sixty years, a ceremony called "hn" representing the renewing of the world. The osirian rite Sâh and the Dogon Sigi are isomorphic. The relationship between AE and modern Black Africa is irrefutable. Dogon gonono:"a 60 years time" Egypt hnn:"a 60 years time"(Budge) Dogon Sigi Egypt sâh Dogon Naporo=Osiris Egypt Npr=Osiris(E.Naville)
The Egyptian word for deity but also pharaoh, Ntr is also found in modern BA languages as thus:
BA and AE religious customs are exactly the same;Hermopolitan cosmogony is found among Northern Cameroon populations.According to M.Maubert "Coutumes du Gurma": "it is impossible(...)even for a layman, to not mention(...) AE, more precisely Hermopolis in Middle Egypt, whose specialists tell us that its cosmogony was about some elements (...)very similar to those we had the surprise to found among Fali people.A primordial egg or "Mother Egg".Two waters existing before everything, (...)"Waters containing waiting germs of creation(...) the only trait common to all the AE cosmogonies(...)" Existence of two lands and four rivers. The intervention of an ogdoad, whose members ,the organizers of the world who worked to built the more or less complete state of the world we know today(...) were originally one and same divinity but represented four entities and finally four couples(...), each couple representing the male and female aspect of one of the other entities(...) The classical iconography shows this eight characters as strange anthropomorphic creatures(...) frog-headed men, snake-headed women in Egypt and are described as crawling beasts living in muddy waters in Cameroon. Even the black ape, mentioned by Lebeuf reminds us of Thot, the baboon-headed god of Hermopolis."
The name of Thot(Greek name for Djehuti) is still found in Modern BA:Zukta, Zigta,(Muhuleh), Jukta(Jukun).
More to come.
The Akan also have a special class of deities that they call Ntoro.
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Actually I never said that anything you've presented was an error or contradiction, on the contrary I have already known about such similarities! I am merely stating that non them really show evidence of influence from dynastic Egypt.
