Genetic Heterogeneity in Algerian Human Populations
Asmahan Bekada , Lara R. Arauna , Tahria Deba, Francesc Calafell, Soraya Benhamamouch, David Comas
Published: September 24, 2015 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138453
Abstract
The demographic history of human populations in North Africa has been characterized by complex processes of admixture and isolation that have modeled its current gene pool. Diverse genetic ancestral components with different origins (autochthonous, European, Middle Eastern, and sub-Saharan) and genetic heterogeneity in the region have been described. In this complex genetic landscape, Algeria, the largest country in Africa, has been poorly covered, with most of the studies using a single Algerian sample. In order to evaluate the genetic heterogeneity of Algeria, Y-chromosome, mtDNA and autosomal genome-wide makers have been analyzed in several Berber- and Arab-speaking groups. Our results show that the genetic heterogeneity found in Algeria is not correlated with geography or linguistics, challenging the idea of Berber groups being genetically isolated and Arab groups open to gene flow. In addition, we have found that external sources of gene flow into North Africa have been carried more often by females than males, while the North African autochthonous component is more frequent in paternally transmitted genome regions. Our results highlight the different demographic history revealed by different markers and urge to be cautious when deriving general conclusions from partial genomic information or from single samples as representatives of the total population of a region.
Introduction
The human history of North Africa has been shown to be a complex demographic process characterized by multiple migrations, admixtures and founder effects. It has been suggested that the first occupation of the area by modern humans, attested by the Aterian culture, might be dated back to ~160,000 years ago [1]; and posterior cultures have been imposed in the region during pre-Holocene and Holocene times [2]. Despite the long-standing presence of human cultures in the region, it has been suggested that the present-day populations in North Africa are the result of a recent back-to-Africa migration in pre-Holocene times that replaced the first inhabitants in the region, followed by multiple migrations from neighboring areas [3]. One of the most relevant human groups in the area are Berbers who are supposed to be the descendants of this first migration back-to-Africa from the Middle East; however, the dynamics of human groups living in that area is still unclear. Historical events testify of many invasions, conquests and migrations by Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Jews, Spanish, and French [4], as well as the presence of autochthonous groups such as the Libyans, Moors, Gaetuli, and Numidians, among others. However, the most important event was the Arab conquest that begun during the 7th century, when North-African autochthonous Berber populations were converted to Islam and since then Arabic has became official language employed in the region. This fact influenced the geographical distribution of Berber communities, which are nowadays relegated to peripheral and relict areas in a vast region extending from Mauritania to Egypt and from the Sahara desert to the Algerian and Moroccan Atlas mountainous areas [5]. Nomadism is one of the factors that have contributed to the geographic isolation of these Berber populations, which became slightly different in their dialect languages and cultures. Therefore, the North African population represents a mosaic of peoples at different levels: the spoken language, the culture and even the social organization that shows in the split observed between the urban regions representatives of the elite (Romanized and Arabicized populations, for example) and the Berber populations living in the rural areas.
Discussion
Our results of uniparental and autosomal markers in Algeria agree with the presence of ancestral components previously described in North Africa, attesting the genome complexity of Algerians (S8 Table). Concerning the Y-chromosome data, the highest frequencies are seen for the autochthonous North African lineages E-M81 and E-M78, this last one more frequent in Northeastern Africa where it has probably emerged [39]; whereas the presence of the Middle Eastern Y-chromosome J1-M267 has been attributed to the Islamic expansion [40]. In a similar way, the mitochondrial DNA analysis shows also different lineages in Algeria, already observed in North Africa: the North African lineages U6 and M1 that have been dated to Paleolithic times [41–43], the Eurasian H (related to the Neolithic expansion) and HV [29,44,45]; and the sub-Saharan lineages (L). It has been suggested that the sub-Saharan lineages for both mtDNA and Y-chromosome reached very recently North Africa through the slave trade routes across the Sahara [16,46,47]. Moreover, the autosomal genome-wide SNPs analysis also demonstrates the admixture of the Eurasian and African components in both Berber (Mozabite and Zenata) and non-Berber populations from Algeria in agreement with the general genetic North African landscape [3].
The genetic structure observed in the Algerian analyzed groups is neither fully correlated with ethnic affiliation (Berber-Arab) nor with geography (coast vs. inland). It is noteworthy, however, that when we removed the Reguibate population from the Arab group, a significant differentiation was observed between the paternal gene pool profiles of Arabs and Berbers. This absence of differentiation between Arabs and Berbers is in agreement with what has been already observed in several North African populations by the analysis of different genetic markers, such as autosomal classical markers (such as HLA markers and GM allotypes) [6,12,14]; autosomal STRs [7]; Alu polymorphisms [8]; Y-chromosome [13,48]; and mtDNA analyses [11,12]. As a result, it has been suggested that the Arabization of North African populations was mainly a cultural process rather than a demographic replacement of autochthonous groups [11].
The genetic heterogeneity among Algerian populations highlights the complex relations between biological, social, cultural and geographical contexts. The distribution and frequencies of the North African, Eurasian and sub-Saharan components both in uniparental and autosomal markers is variable in each group, not only when comparing Berber and non-Berber, but also within linguistic groups. For example, some autochthonous North African haplogroups were not present in certain samples, such as the mtDNA U6 haplogroup that was absent in Algiers and present in only one individual in the analyzed Zenata group. In the same way, mtDNA haplogroup M1 is absent in the Zenata population. The absence of the maternal North African component in these groups, especially the Zenata Berbers, might be explained by extensive genetic drift and the remarkable high frequency of sub-Saharan lineages (~23% for the Y-chromosome E-M2 haplogroup and ~ 65% of mtDNA L lineages) in the Zenata sample. Our autosomal analysis also shows the close position of the Zenata group to the sub-Saharan populations, and the high variance in this sub-Saharan ancestry suggest that this group has experienced recent gene flow.
The complex demography of the Algerian samples analyzed is also reflected in the sexual bias of gene flow and admixture. MtDNA sub-Saharan haplogroups are more frequent than the Y-chromosome lineages, suggesting higher sub-Saharan female gene flow in our Algerian samples. This is in agreement with autosomal and X- chromosome ancestral components, where there is also evidence of sexual bias in the sub-Saharan component. On the other hand, Y-chromosome results show higher frequency of North African than mtDNA haplogroups. This is in agreement with the results for autosomal and X-chromosome markers, which associate North African component to males, while the Middle Eastern and European ancestries seem to be derived from a female gene flow into Algeria. This difference can be explained by the historic and prehistoric role and status of women in the Algerian society: sometimes considered as an object of warlike conflict or as alliances between occupant's and occupied various clans, as denounced by some ethnologists and historians [49,50].
It has been shown that some Berber populations (Tuareg, Mozabite and Chenini-Douirat) are heterogeneous and outliers within the genetic North African landscape, and they seem to have experienced long periods of genetic isolation without subsequent admixture with other groups [15]. This process of isolation was probably recent and has been followed by genetic drift [11]. However, our results in Algeria challenge the identification of Berber-speaking groups as isolated populations, whereas Arab-speaking groups are identified as genetically more diverse and less isolated. Our results demonstrate that Berber groups are not systematically isolated and closed, such as the Zenata who show a different genetic profile compared to the Mozabites, already known to be an isolated Berber group [18]. Their different genetic profiles reflect probably the notion of an open versus close lifestyle towards the outsiders in their so-called isolated populations. Although the Mozabites are descendants of the Zenata Berber group in North Africa, nowadays, the majority of the Mozabites form an isolated Ibadi Muslim group in Algeria. The Ibadi form of Islam evolved from the 7th century Islamic group known as the Kharijites in Irak. They reached Algeria and found a refuge within the isolated group of the Mozabites [51,52]. Although both Zenata and Mozabite Berber groups are geographically close, their different genetic profiles suggest that Mozabites have been more isolated and received less gene flow than the Zenata, who show more admixture not only with sub-Saharan but also with Middle Eastern populations when analyzing autosomal markers. Although the Zenata was the major Berber group in North Africa, their presence in Algeria in present days is restricted to the city of Timimoun, which has been known by its slave population called the Haratines, dark-skinned people, who lived with the Zenata in the ksours of the Gourara (Timimoun region) and learned from them the Berber language and became freed Muslims [53]. On the other hand, Arab groups can be isolated, such as the present example of the Reguibate that shows the lowest paternal haplogroup diversity with the Mozabites. The Reguibate population might have experienced some genetic drift or a genetic founder effect that altered its unilinear lineage frequencies. Indeed, the Reguibate show the highest frequency of the North African component for both Y chromosome (E-M81) and mtDNA (U6a), after the Mozabite.
It has been observed that cultural isolation in rural communities promotes, by the effect of genetic drift, stronger loss of diversity and larger genetic differentiation levels than those observed in urban areas [54]. In addition, a recent study on the Sousse population from Tunisia has shown that cities represent an opportunity to examine the impact of multiple migrations into a region over the time [55]. Therefore, our results suggest that cosmopolite cities (such as Oran and Algiers) are representative of admixed populations that were subject not only to multiple prehistorically and historical migrations but also to those from the rural communities that continue to present day. Consequently, their genetic diversity is more often increased, which decrease the genetic structure among them, regardless the linguistic affiliation of the individuals.
The overall ancestral proportion of admixture components within populations considering mitochondrial and Y-chromosome haplogroups and autosomal markers reflects a similar history of gene flow at the population level. However, the comparison of the different genetic markers at individual level reflects differences as a result of the difference inheritance models of each marker. This discrepancy can be seen in present example of the Zenata sample where these markers were tested in each individual (S2 Fig). It is clearly shown that there is no correlation between the ancestral component origin of the mitochondrial and the Y-chromosome haplogroup in each individual. For example, some individuals show a typical sub-Saharan maternal haplogroup and a North African paternal one. Autosomal analysis can also provide different distribution of ancestral components that is not related to the origin of the uniparental haplogroups. The analysis of different regions of our genome might provide different insides in the population history of the samples under study, thus allowing a wider combining vision of the ancestral histories stored in each marker.
Posted by the lioness, (Member # 17353) on :
I couldn't put up S 2 and S 5 tables on frequency percentage because of the file format
Posted by Troll Patrol # Ish Gebor (Member # 18264) on :
This paper covers a lot.
Slowly we are getting there. Indigenous people to the region with admixture from abroad.
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
@ Deep Cover "woman". Ta! I will take a look at it. But from the abstract there is nothing new.
Many geneticist has showed that there was no such thing as an Islamic invasion circa 600AD.
That is where me and the Afrocentrics disagree. The only modern invasion was the Y-DNA J2 from the Ottoman Era.
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
Reading the paper and NOT the supplemental. A few points of note.
1. The two North African populations that cluster autosomally with SSA are the Zenata and Mazabites. Yes, the Mazabites. Yet the mazabites carry a high frequency of “Eurasian” mtDNA hg-H. 2. Interestingly the Algiers(big city) population do NOT carry mtDNA hg-U6. Indicative of being not part of the Indigenous North African population. But we know this already. City is where the elite foreigners live. 3. In some analyses they are still using the outdated haplogroup frequency makeup to determine “closeness”. Really!!?? Busby and others have dismissed that methodology. 4. It seems like the author is suggesting these North Africans love themselves some black women. Lol! (NOT!!!) They are all indigenous Africans. 5. J2 is found only on the coastal towns/cities. Algiers and Oran .
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
@ Dr Winters
Wow! Wow! Wow! I am not believing what I am seeing. At first glance I dismissed this paper as “more of the same”
But after reading through the supplemental. ST1 . All our questions have finally been answered. Is Algeria Sahara where it all began?
The Algerians Berbers carry the “basal form R1b”. Note they also carry J1e and Q. Wow! Wow! Wow!
I knew it!
More in depth analysis is needed.
The Lineage combined with the autosomal data, it is all falling into place.
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
Notice these Berbers carry A, C, E-M2, E1b1b, E1b1a, Q, G, R1a and R1b, I etc ….all the major clades. Q(east Asian) is even at higher frequency in these African populations than in Europeans So much for MA-1 (malta) carry Basal R1. lol! Which turned out to be hg-Q irregardless
Posted by Clyde Winters (Member # 10129) on :
quote:Originally posted by xyyman: @ Dr Winters
Wow! Wow! Wow! I am not believing what I am seeing. At first glance I dismissed this paper as “more of the same”
But after reading through the supplemental. ST1 . All our questions have finally been answered. Is Algeria Sahara where it all began?
The Algerians Bebers carry the “basal form R1b”. Not they also carry J1e and Q. Wow! Wow! Wow!
I knew it!
More in depth analysis is needed.
The Lineage combined with the autosomal data, it is all falling into place.
Thanks for the news. This is not surprising since we know that many ancient Berbers were Khoisan, and that the Khoisan took haplogroup R into Europe, and probably America. I hope to read the supplemental later.
.
Posted by Clyde Winters (Member # 10129) on :
The Khoisan were probably the original North Africans. The Khoisan probably introduced both mtDNA haplogroups and y-Chromosomes hg A1 and R1-M343. They were also the Cro-Magnon people who took the Augrinacian culture into Europe. The Khoisan are the ancestors of the Black Berbers whoes descendants probably live in Morocco and the Atlas Mountains. The Black Berbers of the Atlas Mountains and other parts of Northwest Africa are of Sub-Saharan origin and took African mtDNA into Western Europe over 40kya. The Gibraltar Straits appears to be the most reliable route for the spread of many mtDNA haplogroups from Africa, into Europe over the past 30ky (Winters,2012), including L3(M,N) . The Khoisan carry L1c,L1i, L2b, L3d ( Rito, et al ,2013) . The motif L3b, is widespread in western Africans. It is mainly found among populations that speak languages of the Niger-Congo family like the Mandekan.
Like most African haplogroups the control region of hg L1i include 16189,16223 and 16311, just like L3a and L3b. The mutation that connects the Khoisan to the spread of L3(M,N) is AF24. The AF24 mutation is found in LOd and among the Khoisan and Senegalese .The existence of AF24 in Senegal and Southern Africa suggest that L1c, L2b, L3d and L3e is not the result of intermarriage with Bantu immigrants , as suggested by Rito et al(2013) .
LOd is the oldest mtDNA haplogroup . This haplogroup is primarily carried by the Khoisan people (Winters,2014) . It is also found among Niger-Congo speakers in West Africa where we also find LOa in West Africa in addition to L3b.
The Cro Magnon DNA found in the ancient skeletons dates back to the Aurignacian period (Winters,2011). The Cro magnon skeletons belong to the N haplogroup.
The Cro Magnon skeletons carried N1a,N1b,N1c and N* (Winters, 2010,2011). It is characterized by motifs 00073G,10873C, 10238T and A4CC between nucleotide positions 10397 and 10400. Most of the skeletons carried hg N*.
It is obvious that L3 (M,N) had expanded into Europe prior to the Neolithic. . .
Frigi et al (2010), in Ancient Local Evolution of African mtDNA Haplogroups in Tunisian Berber Populations noted that: “Our results also point to a less ancient western African gene flow to Tunisia involving haplogroups L2a and L3b. Thus the sub-Saharan contribution to northern Africa starting from the east would have taken place before the Neolithic. The western African contribution to North Africa should have occurred before the Sahara’s formation (15,000 BP)”.
This would explain why Pericot and Dominguez (2005) found evidence of hg L3 at ancient Iberian sites. Luis Pericot was sure that the populations associated with the Gravettian (32kya) and Soultrean (23kya) cultures were phylogenetically Sub-Saharan African (Dominguez,2005). Dominguez (2005) found that the lineages recovered from ancient skeletons associated with these cultures belonged to the African lineages L1b,L2 and L3. Almost 50% of the lineages from the Abauntz Chalcolithic deposits and Tres Montes, in Navarre are the Sub-Saharan lineages L1b,L2 and L3. Berber and Khoisan Y-Chromosome The archaeological data support a migration of probable Khoisan migration from Southern Africa to North Africa. You have to remember that many populations have settled Morocco, so their might not always be a one-to-one correspondence between contemporary Khoisan haplogroups and haplogroups found among contemporary Berbers in Morocco and the Atlas mountains. But given the geography, we would expect to see elements of Khoisan relic population genes among Atlas Mountain Berbers.
quote:Originally posted by Troll Patrol # Ish Gebor: Figure S1. Map Showing Location of the Population Samples Considered in This Study
Populations are represented by circles and numbered as in Table S5. Sectors within circles are proportional to the frequency of haplogroup A1a (green), A1b (red) and A2-T (black). Green asterisks indicate countries were haplogroup A1a has previously been observed.
See:
Table S1. Haplogroup Affiliation of the Seven Chromosomes that Were Re-sequenced
Table S5: Populations considered for the mutations defining major clades A1b, A1a and A2-T.
The Berbers and Khoisan also carry similar R1 haplogroups. The Khoisan in South Arica carry R1-M343 (Schlebusch,,2010). Berbers at Zenata and Oran also carry R1-M343 (Bekada, et al, 2010).
The hominids and tool kits common to South Africa also appear in Morocco. It is no secret that the earliest Y-chromosome haplogroups have been found in Morocco and among the Khoisan. These haplogroups belong to hg A (M91); among the Moroccans we find A1b and A1a.The Khoisan mtDNA was named originally L1a,L1d and L1k, these clades are called LoD and LoK today.
Morocco has yielded impotant new data on African prehistory. Here we find a complex and rich set of early hominids from Jebel Irhoud, Dar es-Soltan and Contrebandiers Cave.
A pan-African Middle Stone Age (MSA) culture existed that united South Africa and Morocco.The Moroccan tools are Levallois technology and Mousterian industries were used in South Africa,North Africa and western Eurasia. Dibble et al (2013) has shown that Pan-African industries included cognate scrapers, Levallois tools, Nassarius beads and engraved ostrich shells. The Moroccans and South Africans shared Levallois tools and the use of ochre, bone tools and ostrich shells. Bouaouggar et al (2007) has shown how the shell beads from Grotte des Pigeons (Taforalt,Morocco) and South Africa's Blombos Caves. The archaeological evidence is clear the Khoisan in Morocco and South Africa shared behavioral , cognitive and technological styles. The major behavioral indicators shared by the Moroccan and South African Khoisan was mining,beads, blades, ochre and bone tools between 200-40kya. It is important to note that Moroccan tools are Levallois technologies and Mousterian industries used in North Africa and Western Eurasia. We also should note that Neanderthals also used Mousterian tools.
In summary, the Black Berbers took African mtDNA into Western Europe over 40kya . in addition, Berbers and Khoisan continue to carry y-Chromosome haplogroups A1 and R1-M343. The Tuareg probably helped spread hg H in Europe after they invaded Europe along with other sahelians/Moors during the Islamic period.
Cruciani, F., Trombetta, B., Massaia, A., Destro-Bisol, G., Sellitto, D., & Scozzari, R. (2011). A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa. American Journal of Human Genetics, 88(6), 814–818. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.002
Domínguez E.F. (2005). Polimorfismos de DNA mitocondrial en poblaciones antiguas de la cuenca mediterránea. Universitat de Barcelona. Departament de Biologia Animal, 2005 (PhD thesis).
Frigi et al. (2010). Ancient Local Evolution of African mtDNA Haplogroups in Tunisian Berber Populations, Human Biology (August 2010 (82:4).
Rito T, Richards MB, Fernandes V, Alshamali F, Cerny V, et al. (2013) The First Modern Human Dispersals across Africa. PLoS ONE 8(11): e80031. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080031
Winters,C. (2010). Origin and spread of the Haplogroup N. Bioresearch Bull (2010) 3:116-122.
Winters C.(2011). The Gibraltar Out of Africa Exit for Anatomically Modern Humans. WebmedCentral BIOLOGY 2011;2(10):WMC002319 doi: 10.9754/journal.wmc.2011.002319
This is not surprising since we know that many ancient Berbers were Khoisan, and that the Khoisan took haplogroup R into Europe, and probably America.
So modern Europeans are largely Khosian rather than Steppe people. Interesting
xyyman, thoughts on this?
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
You know I am not in the Steppe Dravidian camp. This is one of the few points where I disagree with Dr Winters.
Europeans are depigmented Africans. Not depigmented Dravidians or as some say "Dravidian Asian Albino".
I prefer the label "depigmented" over Albino.
Nevertheless. George Busby refused to disclose the North/South cline after debunking the longitudinal(East/West) cline. But this paper seems to break the discussion wide open.
Now I confidently in saying Africans carry basal R1. Even Q. This is the first study I have seen where Africans carry such high frequency of hg-Q and Basal R1.
Posted by the lioness, (Member # 17353) on :
quote:Originally posted by xyyman: You know I am not in the Steppe Dravidian camp. This is one of the few points where I disagree.
Clyde's proposal is Khoisans took haplogroup R into Europe,
quote:Originally posted by xyyman:
Many geneticist has showed that there was no such thing as an Isalmic invasion circa 600AD.
That is where me and the Afrocenrics disagree. The only modern invasion was the Y-DNA J2 from the Ottoman Era.
The debate on that is not 7th century vs indigenous
The researchers who said " Arabization and Islamization of NW Africa, starting during the 7th century ad, was a cultural phenomena without extensive genetic replacement (which could be wrong) but theyfollowed that with an alternative explanation
that these haplogroups came into Africa by from the Middle East with the Neolithic wave.
Genetic Evidence for the Expansion of Arabian Tribes into the Southern Levant and North Africa Almut Nebel,1,* Ella Landau-Tasseron,2 Dvora Filon,1 Ariella Oppenheim,1 and Marina Faerman3 Author information ► Copyright and License information ►
To the Editor:
In a recent publication, Bosch et al. (2001) reported on Y-chromosome variation in populations from northwestern (NW) Africa and the Iberian peninsula. They observed a high degree of genetic homogeneity among the NW African Y chromosomes of Moroccan Arabs, Moroccan Berbers, and Saharawis, leading the authors to hypothesize that “the Arabization and Islamization of NW Africa, starting during the 7th century ad, … [were] cultural phenomena without extensive genetic replacement” (p. 1023). H71 (Eu10) was found to be the second-most-frequent haplogroup in that area. Following the hypothesis of Semino et al. (2000), the authors suggested that this haplogroup had spread out from the Middle East with the Neolithic wave of advance. Our recent findings (Nebel et al. 2000, 2001), however, suggest that the majority of Eu10 chromosomes in NW Africa are due to recent gene flow caused by the migration of Arabian tribes in the first millennium of the Common Era (ce).
In the sample of NW Africans (Bosch et al. 2001), 16 (9.1%) of the 176 Y chromosomes studied were of Eu10 (H71 on a haplogroup 9 background). Of these 16 chromosomes, 14 formed a compact microsatellite network: 7 individuals shared a single haplotype, and the haplotypes of the other 7 were one or two mutational steps removed. This low diversity may be indicative of a recent founder effect. Where did these chromosomes come from?
The highest frequency of Eu10 (30%–62.5%) has been observed so far in various Moslem Arab populations in the Middle East (Semino et al. 2000; Nebel et al. 2001). The most frequent Eu10 microsatellite haplotype in NW Africans is identical to a modal haplotype (DYS19-14, DYS388-17, DYS390-23, DYS391-11, DYS392-11, DYS393-12) of Moslem Arabs who live in a small area in the north of Israel, the Galilee (Nebel et al. 2000). This haplotype, which is present in the Galilee at 18.5%, was termed the modal haplotype of the Galilee (MH Galilee) (Nebel et al. 2000). Notably, it is absent from two distinct non-Arab Middle Eastern populations, Jews and Muslim Kurds, both of whom have significant Eu10 frequencies—18% and 12%, respectively (Nebel et al. 2001). Interestingly, this modal haplotype is also the most frequent haplotype (11 [∼41%] of 27 individuals) in the population from the town of Sena, in Yemen (Thomas et al. 2000). Its single-step neighbor is the most common haplotype of the Yemeni Hadramaut sample (5 [∼10%] of 49 chromosomes; Thomas et al. 2000). The presence of this particular modal haplotype at a significant frequency in three separate geographic locales (NW Africa, the Southern Levant, and Yemen) makes independent genetic-drift events unlikely.
It should be noted that the Yemeni samples (Thomas et al. 2000) were not typed for the binary markers (p12f2 and M172) that define Eu10. However, both Yemeni modal haplotypes are present on a haplogroup background compatible with Eu10. These haplotypes carry a DYS388 allele with a high number of repeats (i.e., 17). High repeat numbers of DYS388, ⩾15, were found to occur almost exclusively on Hg9, which comprises Eu9 and Eu10. Furthermore, in a sample of a six Middle Eastern populations, chromosomes with 17 repeats are frequent (40%) in Eu10 and rare (7%) in Eu9 (Nebel et al. 2001).
The term “Arab,” as well as the presence of Arabs in the Syrian desert and the Fertile Crescent, is first seen in the Assyrian sources from the 9th century bce (Eph'al 1984). Originally referring to nomads of central and northern Arabia, the term “Arabs” later came to include the sedentary population of the south, which had its own language and culture. The term thus covers two different stocks that became linguistically and culturally unified yet retained consciousness of their discrete origins (Grohmann et al. 1960; Rentz 1960; Caskel 1966, pp. 19–47; Goldziher 1967, pp. 45–97, 164–190; Beeston 1995; also see Peters 1999). Migrations of southern Arabian tribes northwards have been recorded mainly since the 3d century ce. These tribes settled in various places in central and northern Arabia, as well as in the Fertile Crescent, including areas that are now part of Israel (Dussaud 1955; Ricci 1984). The emergence of Islam in the 7th century ce furthered the unification of the Arabian tribal populations. This unified Arab-Islamic community engaged in a large movement of expansion, the Fertile Crescent and Egypt being the first areas to have been conquered. It is very difficult to trace the tribal composition of the Muslim armies, but it is known that tribes of Yemeni origin formed the bulk of those Muslim contingents that conquered Egypt in the middle of the 7th century ce. Egypt was the primary base for raids further west into the Maghrib. The conquest of North Africa was difficult and took a few decades to complete (Abun-Nasr 1987). The region was militarily and administratively attached to Egypt until the beginning of the 8th century ce. Arab tribes of northern origin entered North Africa as well, both as troops and as migrants. A major wave of migration of such tribes, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, occurred during the 11th century ce (Abun-Nasr 1987). Thus, the Arabs, both southern (Yemeni) and northern, added to the heterogeneous Maghribi ethnic melting pot.
Little is known of the origins of the indigenous population of the Maghrib, the Berbers, except that they have always been a composite people. After the 8th century ce, a process of Arabization affected the bulk of the Berbers, while the Arab-Islamic culture and population absorbed local elements as well. Under the unifying framework of Islam, on the one hand, and as a result of the Arab settlement, on the other, a fusion took place that resulted in a new ethnocultural entity all over the Maghrib. In addition, Berber tribes sometimes claimed Arab descent in order to enhance their prestige. For example, the Berber nomadic tribe of the western Sahara, the Lamtuna, claimed descent from one of the South Arabian eponyms, Himyar. One of the chiefs of this Berber tribe, Lamtuna, is sometimes referred to as Saharawi, meaning “one of the nomads” or “one who comes from the Sahara” (Ibn al-Athir 1898, p. 462; Ibn Khallikan 1972, pp. 113, 128–129; Lewicki 1986). In Arabic sources, however, the name Saharawi is seldom used and does not seem to refer to a specific genealogical group. In light of these historical data, it is not surprising to find, among the Berbers and contemporary Saharawis of northern Africa, Y chromosomes that may have been introduced by recurrent waves of invaders from the Arabian Peninsula.
These documented historical events, together with the finding of a particular Eu10 haplotype in Yemenis, Palestinians, and NW Africans, are suggestive of a recent common origin of these chromosomes. Remarkably, the only non-Arabs in whom this haplotype has been observed to date are the Berbers (Bosch et al. 2001). It appears that the Eu10 chromosome pool in NW Africa is derived not only from early Neolithic dispersions but also from recent expansions from the Arabian penins
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
quoting outdated papers again.....
Come on Deep Cover Agent. How many times are we going to go over this? Some authors assign “origin” based upon high frequency while other do not. The pattern is what Noah Rosenberg called selective sweep or purification. The “same” autosomal haplotypes only show similarities and NOT origin. This is the point Busby and Rosenberg were making. Once genetic connection is made through AIM then sex related haplotypes will determine “direction”. The geneticists know this. It is all a game. All AIM cluster increase as distance FROM Africa increases. The sex-related haplotypes confirm this. It is not rocket science.
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
I am not sure if Dr Winters is right or wrong about the Khoisan. But Europeans are definitely a sub-set of Africans. They started from Central Africa, enter the Green Sahara, to the Peninsulas of Europe.
What this paper does is confirm what I suspected a long time ago. The most basal forms of yDNA hg-R are found in Africa. So whether it is Khoisan or not Africans carry basal hg-R…and Q. Significance? There is no race it is a continuum. Europeans are depigmented Africans. About seven years ago I was on the Steppes band-wagon reading Gimbutas etc. That was then. Now in the age of aDNA and DNA we know better. Europeans are a subset of Africans. Modern ones. Asians are a sub-set of ancient Africans.
That would explain why modern Africans carry more diversity around the SLC24A5 genes than Europeans while Asian do not carry the SLC24A5 mutation. The light skin of East Asians was probably due to a different mutation. When that gene is confirmed we will see Africans also carry MORE variability around that gene also.
As usual…time will prove me right.
Posted by Clyde Winters (Member # 10129) on :
quote:Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:Originally posted by Clyde Winters:
This is not surprising since we know that many ancient Berbers were Khoisan, and that the Khoisan took haplogroup R into Europe, and probably America.
So modern Europeans are largely Khosian rather than Steppe people. Interesting
xyyman, thoughts on this?
The Khoisan evolved into whites in the Caves of Eurasia. Whites are Steppe people. It was in Central Asia that they exited the caves and by the time they left the caves they were no longer Khoisan, they had become the caucasian race..
.
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
I am getting so good at this I can predict aDNA results before it is disclosed....
Posted by the lioness, (Member # 17353) on :
quote:Originally posted by Clyde Winters:
quote:Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:Originally posted by Clyde Winters:
This is not surprising since we know that many ancient Berbers were Khoisan, and that the Khoisan took haplogroup R into Europe, and probably America.
So modern Europeans are largely Khosian rather than Steppe people. Interesting
xyyman, thoughts on this?
The Khoisan evolved into whites in the Caves of Eurasia. Whites are Steppe people. It was in Central Asia that they exited the caves and by the time they left the caves they were no longer Khoisan, they had become the caucasian race. .
Like I said, according to Clyde Winters white people are depigmented Khosians. They lived in European caves for over 15,000 years and then migrated underground to Central Asia and left the caves only a few thousand years ago When they exited the caves they came into contact with indigenous Central Asian Steppe people who had been living in the there for about 50,000 years
Posted by Clyde Winters (Member # 10129) on :
quote:Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:Originally posted by Clyde Winters:
quote:Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:Originally posted by Clyde Winters:
This is not surprising since we know that many ancient Berbers were Khoisan, and that the Khoisan took haplogroup R into Europe, and probably America.
So modern Europeans are largely Khosian rather than Steppe people. Interesting
xyyman, thoughts on this?
The Khoisan evolved into whites in the Caves of Eurasia. Whites are Steppe people. It was in Central Asia that they exited the caves and by the time they left the caves they were no longer Khoisan, they had become the caucasian race. .
Like I said, according to Clyde Winters white people are depigmented Khosians. They lived in European caves for over 15,000 years and then migrated underground to Central Asia and left the caves only a few thousand years ago When they exited the caves they came into contact with indigenous Central Asian Steppe people who had been living in the there for about 50,000 years
Not really, they met Anu and Kushites who had replaced the Khoisan by this late date.
.
Posted by Snakepit1 (Member # 21736) on :
How did these Khoisans get to central Asia? And if Europeans are merely depigmented Africans, why is it that they don't look remotely like their Khoisan ancestors? I mean, that picture of the Berber is pretty obvious, but Europeans today have a completely different facial structure(s), limb-proportions etc (I do know about genetic drift, natural selection, gene flow etc) .
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
We(scientist) do not know enough about how genes and their interactions work and how facial features or limb proportions are affected.
There are only a few things we know for sure.
I am beginning to think it is plasticity. remember that discussion I had with Cass/Dead. He posted a paper on AFRAM women and changing nose structure. There is also evidence that South African blacks and AFRAM has already started depigmenting.
There is a lot of work to be done and more to be discovered.
Nevertheless. The genetic links are there between SSA and Southern Europe.
EVERY recent paper has confirmed this link.
I came across yet another one only yesterday (on pre-print), showing Dinka and Mandenka having genetic link at the "base" of Europeans. I will post when I have time
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
By Plasticity I mean, the environment has a greater effect on genes than we think. Rees, Mekova et al.
It seems like pigmentation(and the pigmentation genes) is greatly aligned with latitude for some inexplicable reason. Duffy et al.
It is as if the environment, only, affect gene frequency admixture excluded.
Posted by the lioness, (Member # 17353) on :
he's talking to himself in his room
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
Ok! deep cover "woman".
I am yet to be corrected.....proven wrong
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
As you can see the base of the Yoruba/Mandenka branch has a yellow arrow going to the Sardinia/Europe base at 6%. Notice the San branch does not go to Europe only the “modern Africans”. That means the San never left Africa …their descendants probably did. Again, it depends on the population used in the database.
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---- Reconstructing Genetic History of Siberian and Northeastern European Populations - Emily HM Wong - October 18, 2015
The study has yet again - Fig6. TreeMix. Prove me correct
To those who don’t understand. The black tree/lines represent “initial” OOAfrica migration. The yellow line with arrows represent subsequent or secondary waves. Most likely Neolithic. They are guesstimating the percentages but the fact is the migration occurred.
ALL STUDIES WITHIN THE LAST 2 YEARS HAVE CONFIRMED THAT. ,.
If needed I can cut and paste the chart but at this point it is not needed. This is a done deal. Modern Europeans are a subset of modern Africans. Irregardless of the “features”. This is what the DNA is showing. I will go out on a limb and also predict that ancient Africans are not as closely related to modern Africans. Ancients Africans(circa >10,000ya) were most like closely related to LA Brana.
Time will prove me correct....again. I got this.
Posted by Troll Patrol # Ish Gebor (Member # 18264) on :
quote:Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:Originally posted by Clyde Winters:
This is not surprising since we know that many ancient Berbers were Khoisan, and that the Khoisan took haplogroup R into Europe, and probably America.
So modern Europeans are largely Khosian rather than Steppe people. Interesting
xyyman, thoughts on this?
Khosian are the oldest people on the planet. Likely all ancient people looked like them, one point in time. We see this in genetics and metrics. This also may explain the Peking Man.
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
Bump. Am I right or am I right? He! He! He!
"ALL STUDIES WITHIN THE LAST 2 YEARS HAVE CONFIRMED THAT. ,.
If needed I can cut and paste the chart but at this point it is not needed. This is a done deal. Modern Europeans are a subset of modern Africans. Irregardless of the “features”. This is what the DNA is showing. I will go out on a limb and also predict that ancient Africans are not as closely related to modern Africans. Ancients Africans(circa >10,000ya) were most like closely related to LA Brana.
Time will prove me correct....again. I got this"
Posted by xyyman (Member # 13597) on :
Seems like Professor Luisa Pereria likes this thread. So Sage. We do attract "Academics".
![[Smile]](smile.gif)