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White Europeans speak about black Europeans
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[QUOTE]Originally posted by xyyman: [QB] So here is what the White Europeans are saying about their black brothers ------------------------ http://www.eupedia.com/europe/origins_haplogroups_europe.shtml Quote(s): “The information about the origin and ethnic association of haplogroups on this website[b] should not be read as hard facts[/b], but, as is often the case in science, as a model in [b]constant evolution based on the present knowledge [/b]and understanding (of the author). Whenever the advancement of genetics couldn't provide irrefutable answers, we have attempted to provide the most likely and logical hypothesis based on archeological, historical and linguistic evidence. This page is being updated regularly to keep up with recent studies giving additional insights or [b]rectifying possibly erroneous theories[/b]. Feel free to add comments or share your opinion on the forum. [b]DNA Facts[/b] Nucleobases are the alphabet of DNA. There are four of them : adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). They always go by pairs, A with T, and G with C. Such pairs are called "base pairs". The 46 chromosomes of human DNA are composed of a total of 3,000 million base pairs. The Y chromosome possess 60 million nucleobases, against 153 million for the X chromosome. Mitochondrial DNA is found outside the cell's nucleus, and therefore outside of the chromosomes. It consists only of 16,569 bases. A SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) is a mutation in a single base pair. At present, only a few hundreds SNP's define all the human haplogroups for mtDNA or Y-DNA. “ “Firstly, [b]the Y chromosome is a sequence of 60 million "characters" (nucleobases), against only 16,569 for mtDNA.[/b] The Y chromosome therefore offers a much greater resolution as mutations are more common, and indeed happen pretty much every generation. In contrast, mtDNA mutations happen much more infrequently. Since the time of the Mitochondrial Eve, approximately 200,000 years ago, modern humans have acquired in average 20 mtDNA mutations in each lineage - about one every ten thousand years. Even though the number of mutations has accelerated with the soaring of human population over the last 10,000 years, the dating of lineages based on mtDNA alone remains very approximate, and practically useless for historical times. By sequencing the full Y chromosome, it is theoretically possible to map the entire patrilineal genealogy of humanity (or any other species) within a few generations (in some cases even within one generation).” “This included I*, pre-I1, I1, I2*, I2a*, I2a2, but the most widespread appears to have been I2a1, which was found in most parts of Europe. Northeast Europeans would have belonged mostly to haplogroup R1a. [b]Other minor male lineages were certainly also present in parts of Europe, notably haplogroup A1a, [/b]C-V20, H2 (P96, formerly F3) and possibly even Q1a and [b]R1b1* (P25).[/b] “The maternal lineages of [b]Mesolithic Europeans appears to have been predominantly U4 and U5, but also included several H subclades (H1, H3, H17), T, U2 and V.[/b]” “There seem to have been [b]several Palaeolithic and/or Mesolithic migrations from Northwest Africa to Iberia[/b]. The oldest might have brought [b]West African haplogroup A1a to Western and Northern Europe during the Palaeolithic.[/b] A1a has been found in modern populations as far north as Ireland, Scotland, [b]Scandinavia and Finland. The presence of African maternal lineages (L2, L3 and possibly L1b1) has been attested in Neolithic Iberia.[/b] Northwest Africans would also have brought U6 and possibly HV0/V lineages to Europe. A small percentage of[b] sub-Saharan African admixture has been identified in Late Mesolithic Swedes from the Pitted Ware culture (2800-2000 BCE)[/b], which would imply that [b]A1a was already present in northern Europe at the time[/b]. Another Mesolithic sample from [b]Loschbour in Luxembourg had dark hair and ****considerably**** darker skin[/b] than modern Europeans. “ “Agriculture first developed in the Levant, then spread to Anatolia, Greece, the Balkans, Italy, Central and Eastern Europe. These Neolithic farmers were confirmed to have belonged primarily to Y-DNA haplogroups G2a, but also included minorities of C1a2, E1b1b, H2 (formerly F3), J1, J2 and T1a lineages, who could have been assimilated in Anatolia before entering Europe. As they advanced across Europe Neolithic farmers also increasingly assimilated[b] European lineages, notably E-M78 [/b]and I2a1 in Southeast Europe, I1 and I2a1 in Central Europe, I2a1 and I2a2a in Western Europe, and [b]E-M78, I2a1 and I2a2a in Southwest Europe.[/b]” “[b]Hundreds of Neolithic samples from all over Europe (but especially Central Europe and Iberia) have been tested[/b]. The new lineages brought by these Near Eastern immigrants included mt-haplogroups HV, J1, J2, K1, K2, N*, N1, T1a, T2b, T2c, T2e, T2f, U3, W, X1, X2, and many subclades of H (including H2, H5, H7, H13 and H20). [b]H4, H8 and H9 seem to have originated in the Near East as well, although ****no Neolithic sample has been identified in Europe ***yet.[/b]” “[b]Haplogroup V has never been found in prehistoric sites in Northeast Europe, nor in any Indo-European burial in the Eurasian steppe [/b]or Central Asia. It is nevertheless present in every part of Europe nowadays. Its frequency is higher than the European average in north-western Russia (> 5%), and peaks among the Sami (> 30%). Haplogroup V has also been found in most Uralic and Altaic populations across North Asia, and at trace frequencies as far as Korea and Japan. More intriguingly, [b]****haplogroup V is one of the four Eurasian haplogroups found among the Fulani people of Central Africa, who have high percentages of haplogroup R1b-V88.****[/b] It is therefore likely that V was one of the original haplogroups of R1b people, and perhaps of the Paleolithic mammoth hunters from whom R1b is descended. Some V lineages could have been absorbed by the expansion of Ural-Altaic populations (Y-haplogroup N) in North Asia, which would explain its high frequency among the Finns and Sami. “ “Haplogroup A (Y-DNA) A is the oldest of all Y-DNA haplogroups. [b]It originated in sub-Saharan Africa over 140,000 years ago[/b], and possibly as much as 340,000 years ago if we include haplogroup A00. Modern populations with the highest percentages of haplogroup A are the Khoisan (such as the Bushmen) and the southern Sudanese. There are only rare and isolated cases of[b] European men belonging to haplogroup A[/b]. Commercial tests have identified a few Scottish and Irish families (surnames Boyd, Logan and Taylor) all belonging to the same A1b1b2 (M13) subclade. This subclade is normally found in East Africa (Ethiopia, Sudan), but has also been found in Egypt, the Arabian peninsula, Palestine, Jordan, Turkey, Sicily, Sardinia and Algeria. It was certainly brought to Europe by Levantine people, [b]be it during the Neolithic [/b]or later (Phoenicians, Jews, immigration within the Roman Empire). [b]Haplogroup A1a* (M31) has been found in Finland, Norway and eastern England. This subclade is normally found along the west coast of Africa (Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Mali, Morocco) and could have come*** to Europe during the Paleolithic.***[/b] Indeed a few percent of [b]sub-Saharan admixture was found among ancient DNA samples from Mesolithic Scandinavia[/b] tested by Skoglund et al. (2012).“ Haplogroup H & V (mtDNA) Haplogroup H is by far the most common all over Europe, amounting to about 40% of the European population. It is also found (though in lower frequencies) in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, Northern Asia, as well as along the [b]East coast of Africa as far as Madagascar.[/b] Origins: mtDNA [b]N => 75,000 years ago (arose in North-East Africa)[/b] R => 70,000 years ago (in South-West Asia) [b]U => 60,000 years ago (in North-East Africa[/b] or South-West Asia) yDNA R1b-L21 => 4,000 years ago (in Central or Eastern Europe) R1b-S28 => 3,500 years ago (around the Alps) R1b-S21 => 3,000 years ago (in Frisia or Central Europe Berber mtDNA The Berbers are the indigenous populationof north-west Africa. Although their Y-DNA is almost perfectly homogenous, belonging to haplogroup E-M81, Berber maternal lineages show a much greater diversity, as well as regional disparity. At least half (and up to 90% in some regions) of the Berbers belong to some Eurasian lineages, such as H, HV, R0, J, T, U, K, N1, N2, and X2, mostly of Middle or Near Eastern origin. 5 to 45% of the Berbers will have sub-Saharan mtDNA (L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5). There are only three native North African lineages, U6, X1 and M1, representing 0 to 35% of the people depending on the region. [b]Haplogroup U6 has been observed from the Iberia and the Canary Islands to Senegal in the West[/b], and from Syria to Ethiopia and Kenya in the East. It is also found at low density in Europe, though mostly limited to Iberia. Approximately 10% of all North Africans belong to this lineage. Haplogroup X (mtDNA) [b]Haplogroup X is a very old and scattered haplogroup [/b]found all over Eurasia, North Africa as well as among Native North Americans. It frequency rarely exceeds 5% of the population in any ethnic group, and is more often restricted to 1 or 2%. [b]X1 is found almost exclusively in North Africa, [/b]while [b]X2a is the only lineage present among Amerindians[/b]. X2d, X2e, X2n and X4 are found in Europe and Central Asia, and could therefore have been spread at least partially by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. The strong presence of X2 around the Caucasus, progressively fading towards the Near East and Mediterranean , hints that it could be related to the spread of Y-DNA haplogroup G2a. R1b1b and G2a both having origins around the Caucasus it is unsurprising to find X2 alongside these two Y-DNA haplogroups ----------------------------------- [/QB][/QUOTE]
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