posted
Muhammad Sayyid Tantawi (Arabic: محمد سيد طنطاوى) (born 28 October 1928) is the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Mosque and Grand Sheikh of Al-Azhar University. He has been described by Professor Juan Cole as "perhaps the foremost Sunni Arab authority", and "acknowledged as the highest spiritual authority for nearly a billion Sunni Muslims", and "a supreme authority." Tantawi had issued controversial fatwas, among which are:
Islamic veil controversy in France During the controversy of the French headscarf ban in schools, he issued a Fatwa allowing Muslim Girls to take off their Hijabs while attending school, using the lesser of two evils principle.
Abortion He has issued a fatwa which allowed abortion in cases where a woman had become pregnant through rape, though this created controversy and Mufti Ali Gomaa said Tantawy was wrong, and that irrespective of how the life was created, after 120 days an abortion becomes haram, forbidden.
Female circumcision Tantawy opposes female circumcision calling it unIslamic, especially in 1997 when he said "The Ulema (theologians) of Islam are unanimous in agreeing that female circumcision has nothing to do with religion" and revealed his own daughter had not been circumcised.
Suicide bombings Tantawy has taken a line against suicide bombings, and unlike his compatriot Yusuf al-Qaradawi, he has condemned the use of suicide bombings against Israelis, rejecting the argument that all Israelis were legitimate targets because at some stage they would all carry a gun. In 2003 he called suicide bombers "enemies of Islam", adding "people of different beliefs should co-operate and not get into senseless conflicts and animosity. Extremism is the enemy of Islam. Whereas, jihad is allowed in Islam to defend one's land, to help the oppressed. The difference between jihad in Islam and extremism is like the earth and the sky"
Reaction to 9/11 Speaking after the September 11, 2001 attacks, Tantawy said "It's not courage in any way to kill an innocent person, or to kill thousands of people, including men and women and children." He said that Osama bin Laden's call for a Jihad against the west was "invalid and not binding on Muslims", adding "Killing innocent civilians is a horrific, hideous act that no religion can approve". He said the Qur'an "specifically forbids the kinds of things the Taliban and al-Qaida are guilty of"
He also issued a fatwa denying that the interest given by banks are considered as Ribbah.
Now, was he wrong, right, kafir, faseq, or enlightened?
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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posted
hey I think I like this guy! is he Mr Grand Mufti now??
hey My grand Terrorist, do you think the Grand Mufti is not muslim too??
-------------------- If you don't learn from your mistakes, there's no sense making them. Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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Where do we stand regarding the creed of loyalty and disownment (al-walaa al-baraa) with respect to the Kuffaar?
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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posted
Ohh imagine it as a Nile Cruise ship name, alternative concept for Saudis or Iranians.. why not??
Thanks for the link.. You know his story with a prostitute, I know him because of this story Posts: 2591 | From: **Ex Oriente Lux** | Registered: Jan 2007
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That story must have been a way back, the guy died in 1999 when he was 90 something! So why don't you tell us the story? Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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The problem with this man is that he does not have any kind of communication skills or even presentation skills.
The man is excellent in my opinion ,but people do not like those who agree with the government,if you get whay I mean Posts: 2417 | From: Cairo | Registered: Jun 2009
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....As years passed by, and he got older, his health started to deteriorate, and he needed to rest. So the doctor forced him to take some time of, and suggested that he goes somewhere away from his place of work and residence, and advised him to enjoy the quietness and calmness of the parks next to the Nile.
So one day, the Shaykh went out and stopped a carriage (as cars were not that available at the time). He told the driver: My son, take me to a nice place were I can enjoy the view and relax.
The driver of the carriage, however, was a wicked person, and took the Shaykh to a place in Egypt, which at the time had several prostitution houses.
After arriving he told the Shaykh: Here [we are].
The Shaykh said: O son, Magrib prayer is drawing near, where can I pray? Take me first to the Masjid.
The Driver [pointing to one of those houses] said: The Masjid is over there.
The door [of the place] was open, and the lady running that house was sitting, in the manner those like her usually sit.
When the Shaykh saw her, he lowered his gaze. He saw a seat, so he headed there and sat, waiting for the Call for prayer (Adhan).
[The woman in confusion, just] stared at him.
What brought that man here?
He doesn’t look like any of her regular customers.
She kept thinking to herself, but did not dare ask him what he was doing here.
What kept her from asking was the shyness that remained in her heart, even as a prostitute. However, that shyness only appears in front of people of Piety.
He, on the other hand, kept doing Tasbeeh (saying Subhan Allah (SWT)), whilst looking at his watch, until he heard the Adhan of Maghrib from far away.
He asked her: Where is the Moazin (Person who calls for prayers) here?
Why didn’t he call for prayer when the time entered?
Are you his daughter?
She … kept silent.
He waited for a while, and then said: My daughter, Maghrib time is short, and it is not permissible to delay it, and I do not see anyone here, so if you have your Wudu (ablution) then pray behind me Jama’ah.
He gave the call for prayer, and without looking at her, as he was about to give the Iqamah, he noticed stillness behind him?!
He asked: What is wrong? Don’t you have your Wudu?
All of a sudden, as if her Iman (Faith) woke up and she remembered the old days. The days when she was filled with purity, and was away from sin, she started to cry loudly, and threw herself at his feet.
The Shaykh surprised, did not know in what way he can calm her.
She then, started narrating her story.
He saw in her words great regret, and felt the truth in her repentance. He realized the sincerity in what she was saying, so he told her: Listen, my daughter, to what the Lord of all creation says: {Say, “O My servants who have transgressed against themselves [by sinning], do not despair of the Mercy of Allah (SWT). Indeed Allah (SWT) forgives all sins …”} (39:53).
All sins, my daughter, all sins …
The door of repentance is open to every sinner and it is so wide that it can encompass them all no matter how heavy their load [of sins] is … even Kufr.
So whoever disbelieves in the all Mighty, after he was a believer, but repents before the hour of his death comes, and he was sincere in his repentance, and he renewed his Islam, Allah (SWT) will accept him.
Allah (SWT), my dear daughter, is the most Generous of all. Did you ever hear of anyone generous shutting the door in the face of those who come seeking him?
Stand up and go wash yourself, and cover yourself. Go and clean your skin with water and your heart with repentance and regret. Approach your Lord, and I will wait for you.
But do not delay, so that we do not miss Maghrib prayer.
She did as he asked, and returned to him with a new dress and a new heart. She stood behind him and prayed. She felt and tasted the sweetness of that prayer, and felt that this prayer purified her heart.
When the prayer was over, he told her: Come with me, and try to cut every relation you have with this place and everyone in it. Try to erase the time you spent here from your memory.
Consistently ask Allah (SWT) for his forgiveness, and increase in doing righteous deeds.
Verily, adultery is not as big a sin as Kufr, and Hind [bint ‘Utbah – May Allah (SWT) be pleased with her], who was a disbeliever and had animosity in her heart to the Prophet of Allah (SWT). After that she became from the righteous believers, and we started saying: Allah (SWT) is well-pleased with her.
The Shaykh then took her to a house of righteous ladies, and then found her a righteous husband and advised him to take good care of her.” 1/252.
quote:Originally posted by ** Ahmad**: The problem with this man is that he does not have any kind of communication skills or even presentation skills.
posted
Nice story Shah, we have lots of Egyptian films that had the same scenario, the guilt, the repentance and all.
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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posted
What about this? Where do we stand regarding the creed of loyalty and disownment (al-walaa wa al-baraa) with respect to the Kuffaar?
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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posted
Akmad you dont know then go ask someone what you should think
-------------------- If you don't learn from your mistakes, there's no sense making them. Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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quote:Originally posted by ** Ahmad**: The problem with this man is that he does not have any kind of communication skills or even presentation skills.
quote:Originally posted by misfit: amazing isn't it?
بيتهيألى السؤال واضح عقيدة الولاء والبراء على فكرة ، ممكن تستعين بصديق If you believe in loyalty and disownment, you would rather have an Indonisian President for Egypt rather than an Egyptian Copt, even if they are on the same qualification level just because the former is Muslim while the latter isn't.
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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posted
think you scared him off subz, he prefers to 'teach' rather than be taught, and its too obvious you know what you're talking about more than he does
-------------------- If you don't learn from your mistakes, there's no sense making them. Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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posted
I'm ready to be taught about this particular topic, not meant to scare off anyone. I posted the question in English and in Arabic, just need to be enlightened, is all.
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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posted
well I dont have a clue what I am 'supposed' to think about any of it
Personally I would rather have a president thats more worthy of doing a good job for the people no matter what nationality/religion he was, but thats probably wrong I cant have loyalty to someone who supposedly shares the same faith who is a complete plonker
-------------------- If you don't learn from your mistakes, there's no sense making them. Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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quote:Originally posted by Ayisha: Personally I would rather have a president thats more worthy of doing a good job for the people no matter what nationality/religion he was, but thats probably wrong I cant have loyalty to someone who supposedly shares the same faith who is a complete plonker
Any rational person would agree with you choice, no arguing there.
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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posted
I know about the topic ,but problem is that I got tired from arguing about every piece of Islam in vain ,my opinion is the same as Sheikh Ghazaly's ,which is we should love Allah and the prophet and be so strict with anyone who dares to insult them .Do you need me to post the complete opinion in this thread?!
Instead of talking about very deep ideas like the one you have issued ,we should be talking about the Exact meaning of Allah and the message of Islam ,the manners that Islam want to spread... etc
The topic you are issuing IMO will not be of a great benefit for forum members but the real face of Islam will,
secondly ,I really can not go into deep disscusions,I really do not have time , (no offence or brag here),sorry again ,it is just I really do not have the time for going deep into these discussions,sorry for the third time
Posts: 2417 | From: Cairo | Registered: Jun 2009
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quote:Originally posted by ** Ahmad**: I know about the topic ,but problem is that I got tired from arguing about every piece of Islam in vain ,my opinion is the same as Sheikh Ghazaly's ,which is we should love Allah and the prophet and be so strict with anyone who dares to insult them .Do you need me to post the complete opinion in this thread?!
quote:Instead of talking about very deep ideas like the one you have issued ,we should be talking about the Exact meaning of Allah and the message of Islam ,the manners that Islam want to spread... etc
So you would like to talk about the meaning of Allah and the message of Islam but you dont think that could be a DEEP discussion?? What manners is it that Islam wants to spread Akmad? Is it insulting and slandering people that have a different opinion/language/nationality/religion to yours?? because thats ALL you do, thats the only 'manners' you show and those type of manners I dont think should be spread.
quote:The topic you are issuing IMO will not be of a great benefit for forum members but the real face of Islam will,
YOU are now deciding what topics may or may not be 'of benefit' to people?? What 'real face' of Islam do you mean? the one YOU show? no thanks. The one the Taliban show? no thanks. The one the latest Afghani 'martyrs' show? no thanks.
quote:secondly ,I really can not go into deep disscusions,I really do not have time , (no offence or brag here),sorry again ,it is just I really do not have the time for going deep into these discussions,sorry for the third time
im sure we will survive Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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quote:Originally posted by ** Ahmad**: we should love Allah and the prophet and be so strict with anyone who dares to insult them .Do you need me to post the complete opinion in this thread?!
Instead of talking about very deep ideas like the one you have issued ,we should be talking about the Exact meaning of Allah and the message of Islam ,the manners that Islam want to spread... etc
The topic you are issuing IMO will not be of a great benefit for forum members but the real face of Islam will,
What kind of BS is that? do you mean to say that Islam discourages Muslims from discussing any ideas whether "deep" or not and restricts its adherents to only think about "the Exact meaning of Allah and the message of Islam"? This is so lame and pathetic, and can only result in Muslims becoming ignorant of the world surrounding them and this in turn will inevitably cause them to become intellectually handicapped no matter how much they know about Islam! As far as I know, Islam never forbade people from studying or discussing other matters concerning their lives whether secular or religious, and this is what made early Muslims study Greek philosophy and all other branches of science until they managed to use this knowledge to enlighten the world and bring it out of the dark ages, do you mean that Muslims of today cannot even discuss what Muslims in the 8th and 9th centuries were able to discuss? Is this really the mentality of the Muslim youth nowadays?
Seems to me you're only avoiding the subject because you haven't got a clue!
Posts: 956 | From: nowhere | Registered: Sep 2005
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quote: Instead of talking about very deep ideas like the one you have issued ,we should be talking about ... etc
Tsk, tsk...you forgot to send me to my room. What does "loving" Allah and his prophet has to do with the question at hand???
Some muslims believe that Loyalty and disownment is a message of Islam. They back it up with Ahadeeth, so it is a serious issue, so why are we supposed to look the other way and pretend that the world is pinkish and dandy?
If you have anything to debate, ermi bayadak, if not, then go discuss more "serious" issues that will benefit Islam and this board like shaving ladies bits or something.
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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quote:Originally posted by 'Shahrazat: I hear this long before.. Here it is
....As years passed by, and he got older, his health started to deteriorate, and he needed to rest. So the doctor forced him to take some time of, and suggested that he goes somewhere away from his place of work and residence, and advised him to enjoy the quietness and calmness of the parks next to the Nile.
So one day, the Shaykh went out and stopped a carriage (as cars were not that available at the time). He told the driver: My son, take me to a nice place were I can enjoy the view and relax.
The driver of the carriage, however, was a wicked person, and took the Shaykh to a place in Egypt, which at the time had several prostitution houses.
After arriving he told the Shaykh: Here [we are].
The Shaykh said: O son, Magrib prayer is drawing near, where can I pray? Take me first to the Masjid.
The Driver [pointing to one of those houses] said: The Masjid is over there.
The door [of the place] was open, and the lady running that house was sitting, in the manner those like her usually sit.
When the Shaykh saw her, he lowered his gaze. He saw a seat, so he headed there and sat, waiting for the Call for prayer (Adhan).
[The woman in confusion, just] stared at him.
What brought that man here?
He doesn’t look like any of her regular customers.
She kept thinking to herself, but did not dare ask him what he was doing here.
What kept her from asking was the shyness that remained in her heart, even as a prostitute. However, that shyness only appears in front of people of Piety.
He, on the other hand, kept doing Tasbeeh (saying Subhan Allah (SWT)), whilst looking at his watch, until he heard the Adhan of Maghrib from far away.
He asked her: Where is the Moazin (Person who calls for prayers) here?
Why didn’t he call for prayer when the time entered?
Are you his daughter?
She … kept silent.
He waited for a while, and then said: My daughter, Maghrib time is short, and it is not permissible to delay it, and I do not see anyone here, so if you have your Wudu (ablution) then pray behind me Jama’ah.
He gave the call for prayer, and without looking at her, as he was about to give the Iqamah, he noticed stillness behind him?!
He asked: What is wrong? Don’t you have your Wudu?
All of a sudden, as if her Iman (Faith) woke up and she remembered the old days. The days when she was filled with purity, and was away from sin, she started to cry loudly, and threw herself at his feet.
The Shaykh surprised, did not know in what way he can calm her.
She then, started narrating her story.
He saw in her words great regret, and felt the truth in her repentance. He realized the sincerity in what she was saying, so he told her: Listen, my daughter, to what the Lord of all creation says: {Say, “O My servants who have transgressed against themselves [by sinning], do not despair of the Mercy of Allah (SWT). Indeed Allah (SWT) forgives all sins …”} (39:53).
All sins, my daughter, all sins …
The door of repentance is open to every sinner and it is so wide that it can encompass them all no matter how heavy their load [of sins] is … even Kufr.
So whoever disbelieves in the all Mighty, after he was a believer, but repents before the hour of his death comes, and he was sincere in his repentance, and he renewed his Islam, Allah (SWT) will accept him.
Allah (SWT), my dear daughter, is the most Generous of all. Did you ever hear of anyone generous shutting the door in the face of those who come seeking him?
Stand up and go wash yourself, and cover yourself. Go and clean your skin with water and your heart with repentance and regret. Approach your Lord, and I will wait for you.
But do not delay, so that we do not miss Maghrib prayer.
She did as he asked, and returned to him with a new dress and a new heart. She stood behind him and prayed. She felt and tasted the sweetness of that prayer, and felt that this prayer purified her heart.
When the prayer was over, he told her: Come with me, and try to cut every relation you have with this place and everyone in it. Try to erase the time you spent here from your memory.
Consistently ask Allah (SWT) for his forgiveness, and increase in doing righteous deeds.
Verily, adultery is not as big a sin as Kufr, and Hind [bint ‘Utbah – May Allah (SWT) be pleased with her], who was a disbeliever and had animosity in her heart to the Prophet of Allah (SWT). After that she became from the righteous believers, and we started saying: Allah (SWT) is well-pleased with her.
The Shaykh then took her to a house of righteous ladies, and then found her a righteous husband and advised him to take good care of her.” 1/252.
I dont know how I missed this but I do wish I hadn't found it while im at work. Have to go dry my eyes now, thank you shah that was lovely.
Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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quote:Originally posted by ** Ahmad**: we should love Allah and the prophet and be so strict with anyone who dares to insult them .Do you need me to post the complete opinion in this thread?!
Instead of talking about very deep ideas like the one you have issued ,we should be talking about the Exact meaning of Allah and the message of Islam ,the manners that Islam want to spread... etc
The topic you are issuing IMO will not be of a great benefit for forum members but the real face of Islam will,
What kind of BS is that? do you mean to say that Islam discourages Muslims from discussing any ideas whether "deep" or not and restricts its adherents to only think about "the Exact meaning of Allah and the message of Islam"? This is so lame and pathetic, and can only result in Muslims becoming ignorant of the world surrounding them and this in turn will inevitably cause them to become intellectually handicapped no matter how much they know about Islam! As far as I know, Islam never forbade people from studying or discussing other matters concerning their lives whether secular or religious, and this is what made early Muslims study Greek philosophy and all other branches of science until they managed to use this knowledge to enlighten the world and bring it out of the dark ages, do you mean that Muslims of today cannot even discuss what Muslims in the 8th and 9th centuries were able to discuss? Is this really the mentality of the Muslim youth nowadays?
Seems to me you're only avoiding the subject because you haven't got a clue!
Out of numerous contributions by Early Muslim scholars to the field of astronomy, the following can be listed:
Early Muslims precisely defined astronomy as a definite field of scientific research; translated available information and critically reviewed it; developed observing equipments (such as the telescope, the celestial mirror or armillary sphere, the quadrant, the astrolabe, etc.), astronomical tables, calculations and techniques; established a large number of observatories; innovated algebra and introduced applied mathematics for the first time to astronomy; invented the sciences of trigonometry, spherical trigonometry, algorithm, geometrical optics, spherical graphics and its applications in celestial observations; proved the spheroidal and the rotational movement of the Earth; invented longitudes and latitudes and very precisely measured the distance of a longitudinal degree; calculated the circumference, diameter and size of each of the Earth, the Moon, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn with great precision; introduced the Helio-centric of our solar system; estimated the mean orbit and the different altitudes of the sun; defined the nature and movements of many celestial bodies, calculated the degree of obliquity of the ecliptic; catalogued and named many stars and constellations, giving their coordinates and magnitudes, discovered the nebula Andromida, determined with wonderful accuracy the precession of equinoxes and the movements of both the solar apogee and the summer solstice, demonstrating that it is subject to the precession of the equinoxes and that, in consequence, the equation of time is subject to a slow secular variation; recorded the movements of the planets, and the condition of visibility of ~he new moon, and its distance from the earth, described the eclipses, the apparitions of comets; defined the exact movement of the sun with respect to other celestial bodies; marked for the first time the variations in the lunar altitudes in its orbit around the earth; calculated the length of both the solar and lunar years, of the seasons, the month and the day; named the constellations and the position of the Sun with respect to each one of them, designed various chronometers (sundials, sand glasses, candle-water - mercury - and mechanical - clocks), constructed elaborate astronomical tables and treatises, described and explained many phenomena such as the Zodiacal light, rainbows, lightening and thunder storms; constructed calendars 600 years before the Gregorian calendar, and are said to be even more accurate, introduced many Arabic names to the science of Astronomy which are still in use, etc. The names of distinguished Muslim astronomers and the titles of their works and analyses of their contributions can be found in books dealing with the “History of Science”, but I quote the following as example:
SELECTED EXAMPLES OF DISTINGUISHED MUSLIM ASTRONOMERS
1- Al-Fazzari Ibrahim (D. 160 A.H.) and his son Muhammad (D.180 A.H.) who constructed the first Astrolabe wrote on the use of the armillary sphere and prepared tables according to the Hijri Calendar. At least six treatises written by Ibrahim Al-Fazzari in Astronomy are still intact.
2- Al-Baghdady (2nd Century A-H.).
3- Ibn Hayyan (D. 197 A.H.) who wrote 19 treatises about celestial bodies and 16 in astronomy.
4- Sanad bin Aly (3rd Century A.H.) who wrote 5 books on mathematical astronomy.
5- Al-Firghany (3rd Century A.H.) who developed and modified the sundial, and calculated the diameters of each of the Earth, the Moon, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn with great precision... At least 3 of his written manuscripts on astronomy are still intact.
6- Al-Khuwarizmy (D. 235 A.H.) The great astronomer, mathematician, geographer, historian, and the innovator of the science of ‘Algorism'. His book entitled Hisab AI-Jabre wa Al-Muqabalah” was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona, Robert of Chester and Adelard Bath and much later into English by F.Rosen (1831). This book introduced the science of Algebra to the Europeans and was used as the principal textbook for mathematics in their universities until the end of the 16th century A.C. Al-Khuwarizmy wrote 7 treatises on astronomy which have all been translated into Latin.
7- Al-Marwazi (D. 250 A.H.) who wrote many treatises in astronomy, of which only 11 have survived.
8- Al-Kindi (D. 252 A.H.) who wrote more than 265 manuscripts on different subjects, including astronomy and mathematics. At least 20 treatises on astronomy are still intact including one on calculating the distance between the Earth and the Moon, another on telescopes, a third on the engineering of the Astrolabe, a fourth on the Zodiacal light and a fifth on moving bodies and the true nature of light and darkness.
9- Abou Ma’ashar (D. 264 A.H.) who wrote a tabulated astronomical treatise which remained for centuries one of the main sources of astronomical knowledge. Four of his works were translated into Latin by Johannes Hispatensis and Adelard of Bath.
10- Al-Sarkhasi, lbn Al-Tayyeb (D. 286 A.H.) who wrote an astronomical treatise entitled “The Introduction to the profession of stellar observation".
11- Thabit bin Qurrah (D. 287 A.H.) who wrote more than twenty memoirs on astronomy and geometry, invented the sundial, the balance and wrote elaborately on the altitude of the Sun and the length of the solar year. His treatise on the balance was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona. He was followed in his profession (Astronomy, Geometry and Mathematics) by his Sons Ibrahim and Sinan, his grandsons Thabit bin Sinan and Ibrahim bin Sinan, and great-grandson Abou Al-Faraj. Besides his interest in Astronomy, Geometry and Mathematics, Thabit was a skillful physician, while Ibrahim showed his distinction in geometry. His quadrature of the parabola was the simplest ever made before the introduction of integral calculus.
12- Al-Balancy (D. 296 A.H.) who wrote a large number of astronomical tables.
13- Banu Musa Bin Shakir (Muhammad, Ahmad & Hassan) who lived during the 3rd Century A.H. and were outstanding researchers in the field of astronomy, geometry, mechanics and engineering. They calculated the mean movement of the Sun and other celestial bodies, ascertained with remarkable precision the obliquity for the ecliptic, and marked for the first time the variations in the lunar altitudes. They also determined with great accuracy the precession of the equinoxes and the movement of the solar apogee, calculated the size of the earth, invented the telescope, recorded the movements of heavenly bodies and wrote about the measurements of plane and spherical surfaces. This last work of theirs was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona, and their treatise on mechanics is still preserved in the Vatican.
14- Al-Baalabakky (D. 300 A.H.) who has at least 2 preserved manuscripts on astronomy and orbits and the other on “the use of the armillary sphere”.
15- Al-Tibreezy (D. 310 A.H.) of whose works at least 5 manuscripts on astronomy are still intact.
16- Bin Hameed (Al-Aadamy) who lived towards the end of the 3rd and the beginnings of the 4th centuries A.H., and of whose works we know at least one astronomical treatise with tables (Zeej).
17- A1-Madainy (Al-Alawi) who also lived towards the end of the 3rd and the beginnings of the 4th centuries A.H. and also has a large astronomical treatise with tables (Al-Zeej Al-Kabeer).
18- Al-Battany (D. 318 A.H.) was the greatest astronomer of this time, and lived at Al-Raqqah (on the left bank of the Euphrates). His works on astronomy and spherical trigonometry influenced the whole of Europe during the middle Ages and the Renaissance and were repeatedly quoted by Copernicus in his book “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium". According to Ibn Al-Nadeem (1871-1872) we only know one of his numerous works that is still intact which is a treatise on astronomy with detailed tables (al-Zeej). This work was translated into Latin by both Robertus Retinensis and Plato Tiburtinus (in the first half of the 12th Century A.C. and was published in Nuremberg in 1537). It was later edited and translated into Italian by C.A. Nallino and J.M. Millas. In this book, Al-Battany determined with great accuracy the inclination angle of the ecliptic and the possibility of the annular eclipse, , die length (If the tropic year and of the seasons, the true and mean orbits of the sun; discovered the mobility of the solar apogee, as a result of the precession of the equinoxes which he accurately measured ( and mentioned that, in consequence, the equation of time must he subject to a slow secular variation), calculated the variation of the apparent angular diameter of the Sun, rectified orbits of the Moon and planets, and suggested a new, ingenius theory for the determination of the conditions of visibility of the new Moon. His excellent observations on lunar and solar eclipses were used by Dunthome 1749 A.C to determine the secular acceleration of motion of the Moon.
19- Al-Harrany Al-Sabi’ey (D. 384 A.H.) of whose works we only know one tabulated treatise on astronomy.
20- Al-Balkhy (D. 323 A.H.) who wrote more than 70 treatises on astronomy and geography.
21- Al-Jealy (D. 350 A.H.) who wrote 6 known treatises and tables on astronomy.
22- Al-Shareef AI-Baghdady (D. 375 A.H.) of whose astronomical works we only know one treatise with tables.
23- Al-Soufy (D. 364 A.H.) who wrote an illustrated treatise on fixed stars, giving their magnitudes and coordinates, based on his own observations. It is considered the first star atlas to take cognizance of the nebula in the constellation Andromeda, and was translated into French. The book is of great importance even today, as it reveals the changes in magnitude undergone by a number of prominent stars in the course of ten centuries.
24- Abou Al-Wafaa Al-Buzjany (D. 376 A.H.) who wrote extensively on algebra, mathematics, geometry, spherical trigonometry, and astronomy, introduced the use of the secant and the tangent in astronomical observations, and defined methods for finding the value of chords of arcs, and for constructing sine tables. At least 4 of his valuable works are still available, including a large treatise on astronomy.
25- Abou Saqre Al-Qubaissy (D. 380 A.H.) who revised AlFirghanys work and wrote at least three astronomical treatises.
26- Al-Majreety (D. 385 A.H.) who was one of the most eminent astronomers of Cordova. He revised and edited the works of both Al-Khuwarizmy and Al-Battany, and left at least 3 valuable works on astronomy.
27- Ibn Younus Al-Sadafi (D. 399 A.H.) who wrote a tabulated treatise on astronomy that was translated into Persian, Greek, Mangolian and Chinese languages. He also invented the pendulum which was successfully used in measuring time during his celestial observations and in constructing mechanical clocks.
28- A1-Kouhy (D. 405 A.H.) who wrote elaborately on the astrolabe geometry, spherical geometry and astronomy. He studied the movements of the planets, discovered the summer solstice and the autumnal equinox, and left at least 3 valuable works.
29- Ibn Al-Samhe Al-Ghirnaty (D. 426 A.H.) who left behind 3 treatises on astronomy.
30- Abou Al-Qasim Bin Al-Saffar (D. 426 A.H.) of whose work we know two major treatises on astronomy.
31- Al-Kirmany, Abu Al-Hakam (D. 458 A.H.), who was an eminent mathematician, astronomer, engineer and surgeon. He studied astronomy at the hands of A1-Majreety and left a number of manuscripts in that area.
32- Ibn Iraq (who lived during the late 4th and the early 5th centuries A.H.) and left a wealth of literature on astronomy of which we know at least 9 treatises.
33- Al-Bayrouni (D. 443 A.H.) who is considered the most profound and original scientist in human history, with contributions in very many disciplines that were centuries ahead of his time. Among his astronomical contributions is the precise determination of the magnitude of both the earth’s radius and circumference, the scientific discussion of the then controversial rotation of the earth on its own axis, the accurate definition of latitudes and longitudes, the correct explanation of numerous astronomical phenomena like the Zodiacal light, the excessive speed of light as compared to sound and the much greater radius of the sun as compared to both moon and earth, among his comprehensive treatises are the one entitled “Al-Qanoun Al~Masa’udi Fi Al-Haya’at Wa Al-Nujoum”, and “Kitab Al-Tafheem Li Aw’ail Sanat Al-Tanjeem”. An English translation of the latter book, facing the Arabic text was published 1939 in London by Ramsay Wright. (His written works amount to about 180 manuscripts, some of which has been translated into many languages.
34- Ibn Hayy (D. 456 A.H.) who wrote a tabulated treatise on astronomy.
35- Al-Zarqaly (D. 480 A.H.) who was reputed for his talent in inventing and constructing astronomical equipments and tables, as well as contributions to the field of astronomy. He correctly determined the degree of inclination of the ecliptic within one minute of arc, and his works were translated into Latin, and were quoted by Copernicus in his book De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium.
36- Al-Isfizary (D. 480 A.H.) who critically reviewed the works of Euclid and of Banu Musa Bin Shaker and wrote 3 manuscripts on geometry, surveying and mechanical contrivances.
37- Bin Aflaj (who lived during the later years of the 5th and the earlier years of the 6th centuries A.H.) and wrote 9 manuscripts in the area of Astronomy.
38- Omar Al-Khayyam (D. 516 A.H. 1123 A.C.) who together with Abd Al-Rahman Al-Khazini supervised the Nishapur observatory, collaborated in the reformation of the Persian calendar (which preceded the Gregorian calendar by 600 years and is said to be even more exact), and was one of the greatest mathematicians, astronomers and poets of his time.
39- A1-Hakeem A1-Dany (D. 529 A.H.) who wrote on geometry (2 manuscripts), astronomy and astronomical equipments (2 manuscripts).
40- Ibn Bajah (D. 530) who was an outstanding physician, philosopher, mathematician, botanist and astronomer. Some of his works are translated into both Spanish and English.
41- Al-Badeea Al-Astrolaby Al-Baghdady (D. 534 A.H.) who wrote on astronomy and astronomical equipments two manuscripts at least.
42- AI-Batroujy (D. 582 A.H.) who wrote a treatise on astronomy that was translated into Latin by Kalonymos ben David and into Hebrew by Moses bin Tibbon. Some of his original contributions were the discovery of the spinning movements of the planets.
43- Al-Mosely (D. 639 AM.) of whose work we know two manuscripts on astronomy.
44- Al-Asfouny (D. 649 A.H.) who wrote on both geometry and astronomy invented both the armillary sphere and the water-wheel and wrote in other fields.
45- Al-Morrakeshy (D. 660 AM.) of whose astronomical writings we have at least two manuscripts: one on viewing the moon and the other on the measurement of time.
46- Al-Saheb Al-Labboudy, Najm Al-Deen (D. 670 A.H.) who wrote two lengthy treatises on astronomy.
47- Al-Tousi (D. 672 A.H. -1274 A.C.) the famous astronomer, mathematician, physicist, geologist, natural scientist, physician, philosopher and theologian, who wrote the "Al-khanian Astronomical Tables”, constructed the famous Maraghah Observatory and the one at Samarqand These were equipped with the best available instruments of the time, e.g. ecliptical, solisticial and equatorial armillary spheres, Mural quadranis, etc. The Maraghah Observatory also housed a very big library, which was described to contain more than 4,000,000 manuscripts. He wrote a number of astronomical treatises of which the most important is “Kitab Al-Tathkirah Fi ‘Ilm Al-Haya’ah” or “The Memoir of Astronomy”, which is a complete survey of astronomical knowledge until his time. This manuscript was a landmark in the development of astronomy, and hence was reviewed by a large number of authors and translated into several Eastern as well as Western languages. In the field of astronomy, Tousi also wrote:
(i) “The Cream of Astronomy” which is still extant in both Arabic and Persian. (ii) “The Stars Made Easy”.
(ii) “On the Trajectory, Size and Distance of Mercury".
(iv) “Rising and Setting”.
(v) “On The Moving Sphere”.
(vi) “On the size and distances of the Sun and the Moon".
(vii) “On the ascension of Stars”.
(viii) “Spherics”.
(ix) “Days and nights”.
(x) “Tazheer Al-Majesty”.
(xi) “Research on the reflection and deflection of light rays".
(xii) "The Book of optics".
48- Al-Hakeem Al-Maghriby (D. 680 A.H.) who wrote elaborately on astronomy, and left at least 10 manuscripts in that area.
49- Al -Shirazi (D. 709 A.H. - 1311 A.C.) who was Al-Tousi’s student and wrote a manuscript on Astronomy with the title “Nihayat Al-Idrak Fi Dirayat Al-Aflak” (or The Latest Knowledge in the Science of Planetary Orbits). Besides its main theme, astronomy, the book contains a wealth of knowledge on geometrical optics, like the nature of vision and the formation of the rainbow.
50- Ibn A1-Shater (D. 777 A.H.) who wrote an elaborate, tabulated treatise on astronomy (Al-Zeej Al-Jadeed) from which Copernicus drew most of his information without acknowledging that. He is also credited for measuring the angle of inclination of the Zodiacal Sphere with great precision, and inventing a chronometric instrument for defining the exact time of prayer.
51- Al-Majdy (D. 850 A.H.) who wrote 15 manuscripts on astronomy and elaborated on sighting the Moon, on Saturn, the luni-solar calendar, and the application of geometry in astronomy.
52- Ulugh Beg (D. 853 A.H. - 1440 A.C.) who was interested in astronomy, published a stellar catalogue and tables, comparing his observations with those of previous workers such as AI-Sufi, and erected a large observatory at Samarquand, where a group of distinguished astronomers did work.
53- Badre Al-Deen (D. 907 A.H.) who wrote 6 manuscripts on astronomy and geometry.
54- Salah Al-Deen Qadhi Zadeh (D. 940 A.H.) who revised the astronomical work of Ulugh Beg and published his astronomical tables.
55- Al-Kaslii (D. 851) LII. - 1436 At.) Who was the first director of the observatory at Samarquand, a great astronomer and mathematician, prepared a number of astronomical tables and maps including “Zeej Al-Khaqani”.
56- Al-Qashji (D. 878 A.H. - 1474 A.C.) who prepared the astronomical tables of Ulugh Beg. These tables were edited, translated and published into both the Persian and Latin languages by J. Greaves & T. Hyde (1650-1665), and its introduction was translated into French by Sedillot (1846). Such work was highly treasured in Europe as an excellent source for astronomical information until the mid-nineteenth century A.C.
seems early muslims had a lot more about them than they do now, now we are going backwards Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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Contribution of early Muslims to the field of Earth Sciences
Despite the magnificent contributions of Early Muslims to the field of Earth Sciences, it has been wrongly assumed that the birth of such sciences did actually take place in 1830 A.C. by the publication of Charles Lyell’s book “Essentials of Geology”.
It is true that the field has since been broadened to accommodate many specializations, has gradually advanced with big leaps and great strides, has been met with world-wide recognition and placed to widespread economic applications, but contributions of generations before Lyell cannot be ignored. Some knowledge of the earth and of its resources must have been flourishing long before Lyells time, as quarrying for building and decorative stones, ore-mining and metal extraction, exploration for gems and gemstones as well as their industries were developed in all ancient civilizations. The techniques used must have been simple and primitive, but were definitely based on some knowledge and experience, particularly with miners gemologists, quarrymen, professionals in ore prospection and extraction, specialists in other industries and trades dealing in minerals and rocks, scientists, philosophers and even clergymen. As mentioned above, most of the civilizations prior to the advent of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) had already lost their divine guidance, and hence, deviated to irrational thoughts and misconceptions, and their legacies were flooded with such as methologies, magic, mysticism, superstitious and skeptic views about the universe, peculiar ideologies, queer dogmas and strange beliefs.
Consequently, the synthesis and theorization of the collected information about the earth were distorted by such strange beliefs, despite marked successes in the applied field. Tracing the origin of Geological knowledge in such peculiar explanations of classic times, or jumping from there to Renaissance, overlooking the “Golden Age” of the Islamic civilization is a gross historical and scientific mistake. Ancient Greek and Roman writers - like their predecessors in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China - pondered about the origin of the earth and of the rest of the universe, but their conclusions were nothing more than a number of facts borrowed from previous revelations, highly twisted and corrupted by conjectural speculations and presumptions, without much observational or experimentational deductions. Luckily enough most of their writings are lost and-indeed-what is left makes such a loss unregretable. It was described by Schwarz ( 1968) under the correct title “The Failure Of Geological Attempts By The Ancient Greeks From Old Ages To The Reign Of Alexander". Indeed some ancient Greek and Roman writers assumed the presence of fire at the earth’s center and recognized the remains of animals and plants in rocks of the earth’s crust, the rise and subsidence of land areas and a number of other geological phenomena, but failed to rationalize their explanations for such assumptions and observations as myths normally pre-occupied any systematic thinking in their minds.
Consequently, their contribution to Earth Sciences is, indeed scanty and of little worth. Zittel mentioned this in what is translated in the following lines: Not a single writer on these subjects in the ancient world had examined the rocky crust of the earth with a view to ascertain its composition, nor conceived that fossils in the sedimentary succession can afford clues to the history of the earth. The aims and objectives of modern geological and paleontological studies were absolutely unknown to the ancients, for baseless hypotheses and haphazard observations cannot be considered as a foundation for scientific achievement. However, if such generalization applies to the legacy of the Greco-Roman civilization, it definitely does not apply to the contributions of the Early Muslims. These contain a wealth of scientific knowledge experiences and procedures for the identification of minerals and rocks, including physical and chemical properties (such as specific gravity, colour luster, transparency, impurities, streak, hardness, fractures, cleavage, fusibility, refractivity, crystallinity and crystal form, reaction to both heat and acids, etc.); as well as certain pertinent information about the occurrence, association, genesis, classification, extraction and uses of economic minerals and rocks ( such as gems and gemstones, gold, silver copper mercury; , lead and zinc, iron, borax, alum, rock salt, corals; crude oil and oil seeps, tar, coal, asbestos etc. The tables constructed by Muslim scholars for the classification and physical properties (such as specific gravity) of minerals and rocks hardly differ from modern readings. Muslim scholars also carried elaborate experimentation in chemical reactions, acid treatment, heating and calcinations, etc. And hence were pioneers in introducing experimentation in the examination and extraction of minerals and ores. Early Muslims’ contributions to Earth Sciences also include the description of the shape of the earth, proving its sphericity and rotational movements; the measurement of its dimensions (radius, circumference and volume with an error of no more than 3% ), the notion to the presence of most of its mass at its center; description of the geomorphological features of its surface and the processes shaping such features; the distribution of land and sea and the description of many oceanographic characteristics (such as shoals and shoal deposits, islands and peninsula, coral reefs, tides and tidal effects, etc.) ; the rational description of both internal and external forces of the earth and their associated processes and phenomena ( e.g. earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, orogenic movements, faults and surface collapses, other catastrophic events, the processes of both weathering and erosion and their products etc.); the rising of temperature towards the center of the earth and the rising of mountains from within oceans and seas (an early notion to the ocean/continent’ cycle); the recognition and classification of both meteors and meteorites; the suggestion of a scale of hardness for determining the relative hardness of minerals [ 8 centuries before Fredrich Mohs ( 1773-1839) introduced his scale] ; the rock cycle or the formation of igneous rocks from molten magma and their disintegration by weathering into sediments and sedimentary rocks, the precise definition for the textural characteristics of both sediments and the later compaction of such. Sediments into sedimentary rocks; the recognition of beds, bedding planes and the law of superposition of strata [ centuries before both James Hutton ( 1726 - 1797) and William Smith ( 1769 - 1839) who are wrongly acclaimed as the fathers of Geology]; the understanding of metamorphism and its processes; the rational explanation of a large number of geological phenomena ( e.g. the transgression and regression of seas and oceans; the water cycle and the gushing of fresh, saline and hot-water springs; the formation of sabkhas, salt pans and playas; evaporation of water from the earth’s surface, cloud formation, and condensation, rain, hail, snow, lightening, thunder storms, rainbow formation, and other meteorological observations; the river cycle, desertification, etc.); the correct interpretation of the true nature of fossils and the process of fossilization, as well as the use of such information for paleogeographic reconstructions and paleoecologic interpretations; the recognition of the very slow pace of the geologic processes and the gradual development of creation with time from matter to plant life, then animal life and finally humans; recognition of the antiquity of the earth and providing a sound basis for the estimation of its age; the development of instruments of such extraordinary power such as the telescope, the microscope, the alidade, the compass etc., which opened the gates of knowledge in front of the human eye; precise geographic descriptions, measurements and mapping, geodetic surveying techniques, etc. All this wealth of information was written in a superb language where scientific terms are precisely defined to the extent that linguistic dictionaries such as that of Ibn Sayydeh (D. 458 A.I-I. = 1066 A.C.) contained a whole chapter on geologic terminology. These contributions are well within the core of Earth Sciences, and hence cannot be overlooked or credited to others, as wrongly practiced by European scholars who have - undoubtedly - made some use of this sound scientific knowledge, and ascribed it to Greek authors. Such wealth of geologic information is not only ignored in writings about Earth Sciences or about the History of Sciences, but the names of eminent Muslim scholars have been Latinized to mystify their identity.
Indeed, numerous Arabic manuscripts have been translated into Latin and Greek, and referred to other European authors. The case of Ibn Sina’s section on “Minerals” in his famous book “Al-Shifaa” (or the Book of Remedy) is only one of the many shameful practices by Europeans during Renaissance. This chapter was partly translated and partly abridged under the Latin title “De Mineralibus” and wrongly attributed to Aristotle. Another manuscript in the same field by Jaber bin Hayyan was also translated into Latin under a similar title and attributed to Garlandius. For the names of distinguished Muslim scholars who have contributed elaborately to the field of Earth Sciences, for the titles of their works and to the analysis of their contributions reference is made to Al-Sukkary (1973), Ahamd (1978), E1-Naggar & Al-Daffaa (1988) and other references on the history of sciences, but the names in the following list are only given as selected examples:
SELECTED EXAMPLES OF MUSLIM SCHOLARS DISTINGUISHED IN THE AREA OF EARTH SCIENCES
1- Imam J’aafar Al-Sadeq (died 148 A.H - 765 A.C.) who wrote a manuscript on mineralogy, that was published by Ruska (1924). Original Arabic Name Latinized Name Ibn Rushde Ibn Bajah Ibn Zuhre Ibn Sina Ibn al-Haytham Jaber bin Hayyan Al-Razy Al-Zerqaly Abu Ma’ashar Al-Khuwarazrny Al-Farghany A1-Battany Al-Bitujy Bin Maymoun Al-Faraby Averroes Avempace Avenzoar Avicena Al-Hazan Geber Rhazes Arzachel Albumasar Algorithm Alfraganus Albertagnius Albetragnius Maimonides Al pharahius : Examples of Muslim Scholars’ names which have been Latinized by Westerners in an attempt to mystify their identity.
2- Jabir bin Hayyan (died 160 A.H. - 776 A.C.) who was basically a chemist, and a medical scientist, was the first to synthesize minerals from natural ingredients (e.g. Cinnabar from mercury and sulphur), and to classify them on the basis of their physical properties. He suggested the possibility of transformation of base metals such as tin, lead and iron into precious metals such as gold and silver, and described in a professional manner the operations of calcinations, oxidation, evaporation, filtration, sublimation, melting, distillation and crystallization, as well as the solubility of gold in a mixture of acids (aqua regia). Jabir innovated a theory on the geological formation of metals, observed the imponderability of magnetic force, and emphasized the importance of experiment in scientific research. He wrote a number of treatises on chemistry and mineralogy of which we know at least 3, selections of which have been translated by Julius Ruska & Paul Kraus (1935). Many of his works were also translated into Latin and referred to Greek authors such as his manuscript on minerals (Mineralibus) which was wrongly ascribed to Garlandius.
3- Al-Haseb (died 206 A.H - 821 A.C.) who wrote a book on the uses of rocks.
4- Ibn Masaweeh (died 215 A.H. - 830 A.C.) who wrote a book on rocks.
5- Al-Khuwarizme (died 235 A.H. - 852 A.C.) who wrote 3 treatises on the shape of the earth and its geography. A manuscript copy of his book “The Image Of The Earth” is preserved at Strassbourg, France and was edited and translated into Italian by Nallino and into German by Hans Mzik.
6- Al-Kindy (died 252 A.H. - 866 A.C.) who wrote 7 treatises on geological issues including one on gems and semi-precious stones, a second on tides and a third on thunder storms, lightening, snow, hail and rain.
7- Al-Razy (died 320 A.H. - 932 A.C.) who wrote 7 treatises on minerals, rocks and the origin of the earth. His book
” The Secret of Secrets” was fully translated by Ruska and reviewed by Mieli (1938).
8- Al-Hamadany (died 334 A.H. - 945 A.C. ) who wrote a treatise on gold and silver that was revised and published in Uppsala, Sweden by C. Toll (1968), another on “The Description Of the Arabian Peninsula, And A Third On Routes and Kingdoms”.
9- Al-Masaudy (died 346 A.H. - 957 A.C.) who wrote 4 treatises on subjects related to the earth, including one on gold and gemstones, that was translated into English by Springer (1841) and into French by Barbier de Meynard & Pavet de Corteille ( 1861-1877).
10- Al-Maqdisy (died 381 A.H. - 992 A.C.) who wrote a wonderful book on geographic provenance.
11- Ikhwan Al-Safa (4th century A.H. - 11th A.C.) who wrote three theses on Earth Sciences out of a collection of 52 (the 4th, the 5th and the 19th). These theses were translated completely into Persian, Hindostani and Turkish and partly into German and French by Dieteric (1861- 1886) and Forbes & Rieu (1861), respectively.
12- Al-Yanbuay, Abou Dilfe (4th Century A.H. - 11th A.C.) who wrote a treatise on minerals that was revised by Minorsky and published in Cairo (1955).
13- Ibn Al-Jazzar (died 400 A.H. - 1009 AC.) who wrote a book on rocks.
14- Ibn Sina (died 428 A.H. - 1037 A.C.) who wrote 3 chapters on geological subjects in his treatise entitled “The Book of Remedy”, one on minerals and meteorological phenomena, a second on natural forces and a third one on properties of the equator. The chapter on minerals was translated into Latin and ascribed wrongly to Aristotle. It was translated into German by Ruska (1912) and into French by Holmyard & Mandeville (1927).
15- Al-Bayrouny (died 443 A.H. - 1051 A.C.) who wrote at least 13 treatises on subjects related to the earth, including: gems and gemstones, minerals, specific gravity of minerals and precious stones, the relationship between metals and gems, shadows, the determination of the direction of Qiblah, the determination of locations by means of the intersection between latitudes and longitudes and a scientific discussion on both the formation of mountains and the estimation of the age of the earth. His book on gems and gemstones was reviewed by Clement -Mullet ( 1858), revised and published by Stapleton (1905), Kramkov (1907), Sachau (1898, 1910), and was translated into German by Wiedemann and published serially since the beginning of the 20th century A.C. The book was also translated into Persian by an anonymous person and this translation was rendered into English by Ahmad (1929). This last translation was reviewed by Lippmann (1931). The book was also translated into Russian by Byelenskiy.
16- Al-Jirjany (died towards the end of the 5th century A.H. - beginning of the 11th century A.C.) who wrote a book on rocks that was reviewed by Ritter (1935).
17- Al-Bakry (died 487 A.H. - 1095 A.C.) who wrote an encyclopedic work on the geography of the earth and a glossary to explain the necessary terminology.
18- Al-Tughr’aiy (died 515 A.H. - 1121 A.C.) who wrote two treatises on the transformation of minerals, that were translated into Latin.
19- Al-Zamakhshary (died 538 A.H. - 1151 A.C.) who wrote a treatise on “Mountains, Places and Water”.
20- Al-Idreesy (died 560 A.H - 1164 AC.) who wrote 4 treatises on the earth, its shape, morphologic features, maps, routes and kingdoms.
21- Al-Hamawi Al-Baghdady (died 627 A.H. - 1230 A.C.) who wrote two geographic glossaries, one on countries and the other on places.
22- Al-Demashquy, Al-Misri, Ibn Al-Awwam (the last half of the 6th century A.H. - 12th A.C.) who wrote elaborately on minerals, rocks and soils; most of their original writings could not be located but has been reviewed by a large number of subsequent writers. 23- Al-Sweedy (died 601 A.H. - 1291 A.C.) who wrote a book on gems and gemstones.
24- Al-Teefach (died 651 A.H. - 1253 AC.) who wrote two elaborate treatises on geology, one dealing with minerals and rocks ( mainly with gems and gemstones) and the other on the observations of natural phenomena. The mineral book was abridged and published by Raphius (1784) in Utrecht, Holland. The book was previously translated into Latin and a number of other European languages since the early days of the Renaissance. A copy of the Arabic text with an Italian translation was published in Florence, Italy in the year 1818 A.C. under the auspices of Count Antonio Reineri, and was reprinted in Bologne, Italy in 1906 A.C. Copies of the manuscript are kept in Leiden, Paris, Guteh, Cairo and Kuwait.
25- Al-Khaziny (died in the 6th century A.H. l2the century A.C.) who wrote a book on mechanical contrivances, but it contains tables and methods of determinations of specific gravity for a large number of gems, minerals and rocks, with great precision. The book was reviewed by Koenikoff (1879), Wiedemann (1911) and by Mieli & Brunet (in Mieli, 1938).
26- Al-Toosy (died 672 A.H. - 1274 A.C.) who wrote a book on rocks.
27- Al-Qabajaky (died towards the end of the 7th century A.H. - 13th century A.C.) who wrote a book on rocks, recognizing the magnetite mineral and advocating the use of the magnetic needle.
28- Al-Qazweeny (died 682 A.H. - 1283 A.C.) who wrote at least 6 treatises in areas related to Earth Sciences including: gold and gemstones; on the geologic profession; on the order of the universe; countries and geographic provinces; archaeology and history; strange creatures and peculiar creations. The latter is an encyclopedic work that discusses many things on Earth and in the universe. It was published by Wustenfeld (1848) in Germany, was partly translated into German by Hermann Ethe (1878), by Ruzka (1896) and by Wiedmann (1911), and into French by Mercier, and by both Chezy & De Sacy.
29- Al-Iraquy ( the 7th century A.H. - the 13th A.C.) who wrote elaborately on geological topics including two manuscripts, one on precious stones and the other on gold. His works were reviewed by Ruska (1929) and translated into English by Holmyard (1923).
30- Al-Kamily (the 7th century A.H. - the 13th A.C.) who wrote monumental work on minting the Egyptian coins, where various metallurgical aspects are discussed. The book was reviewed by Holmyard (1931).
31- Al-Kashany (died 700 A.H. - 1301 A.C.) who wrote a manuscript on precious stones, essences, pottery ceramics and china, where a large number of minerals and rocks are discussed. The book was reviewed by Mieli (1938).
32- Al-Demashquy, Al-Soufy (died 726 A.H. - 1326 A.C.) who wrote a selection on peculiarities of both land and sea, where 700 minerals and rocks are described.
33- Al-Jaldaki (died 743 A.H. - 1342 A.C.) who wrote a manuscript on rocks.
34- Ibn Al-Akfany (died 749 A.H. - 1348 A.C.) who wrote a treatise on gems and gemstones.
35- Al-Telemsany Al-Miqury (died 1041 A.H. - 1631 A.C.), who wrote a book on minerals in Andalusia. These names are only a selection from a long list that cannot possibly be included here. Other scholars mentioned under Astronomy, as most of the Muslim astronomers had interest in the Earth, and their names need not to be repeated. Each of these authors also quoted, in his preserved manuscripts, a much larger list of references and of authors of whose works we know absolutely nothing today, either due to their loss during the sacking of Baghdad and of many other centers of learning throughout the Islamic World, or due to the fact that such manuscripts are still lying in the darkness of library cellars in both Western and Eastern countries. However, this modest list shows clearly the great interest of Muslims in sciences of the earth and its applications for exploring, prospecting and exploiting its wealth, as well as for discovering the properties of our planet and forces influencing it.
-------------------- If you don't learn from your mistakes, there's no sense making them. Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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posted
and MORE! maybe I should have started a new thread but it seemed relevant to Akmad inferring we should be thinking only of Allah and 'the true face of Islam', well Akmad like it or not this IS about ALLAH and this IS about the true Islam and the early Muslims were well aware of that. Oh and these are REAL SCIENTISTS
The 'first true scientist'
Isaac Newton is, as most will agree, the greatest physicist of all time.
At the very least, he is the undisputed father of modern optics, or so we are told at school where our textbooks abound with his famous experiments with lenses and prisms, his study of the nature of light and its reflection, and the refraction and decomposition of light into the colours of the rainbow.
An artist's impression of al-Hassan Ibn al-Haytham Yet, the truth is rather greyer; and I feel it important to point out that, certainly in the field of optics, Newton himself stood on the shoulders of a giant who lived 700 years earlier.
For, without doubt, another great physicist, who is worthy of ranking up alongside Newton, is a scientist born in AD 965 in what is now Iraq who went by the name of al-Hassan Ibn al-Haytham.
Most people in the West will never have even heard of him.
As a physicist myself, I am quite in awe of this man's contribution to my field, but I was fortunate enough to have recently been given the opportunity to dig a little into his life and work through my recent filming of a three-part BBC Four series on medieval Islamic scientists.
Modern methods
Popular accounts of the history of science typically suggest that no major scientific advances took place in between the ancient Greeks and the European Renaissance.
But just because Western Europe languished in the Dark Ages, does not mean there was stagnation elsewhere. Indeed, the period between the 9th and 13th Centuries marked the Golden Age of Arabic science.
Great advances were made in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, physics, chemistry and philosophy. Among the many geniuses of that period Ibn al-Haytham stands taller than all the others.
Ibn-al Haytham conducted early investigations into light Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method.
As commonly defined, this is the approach to investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge, based on the gathering of data through observation and measurement, followed by the formulation and testing of hypotheses to explain the data.
This is how we do science today and is why I put my trust in the advances that have been made in science.
But it is often still claimed that the modern scientific method was not established until the early 17th Century by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes.
There is no doubt in my mind, however, that Ibn al-Haytham arrived there first.
In fact, with his emphasis on experimental data and reproducibility of results, he is often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".
Understanding light
He was the first scientist to give a correct account of how we see objects.
He proved experimentally, for instance, that the so-called emission theory (which stated that light from our eyes shines upon the objects we see), which was believed by great thinkers such as Plato, Euclid and Ptolemy, was wrong and established the modern idea that we see because light enters our eyes.
Prof Jim Al-Khalili What he also did that no other scientist had tried before was to use mathematics to describe and prove this process.
So he can be regarded as the very first theoretical physicist, too.
He is perhaps best known for his invention of the pinhole camera and should be credited with the discovery of the laws of refraction.
He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colours and studied shadows, rainbows and eclipses; and by observing the way sunlight diffracted through the atmosphere, he was able to work out a rather good estimate for the height of the atmosphere, which he found to be around 100km.
Enforced study
In common with many modern scholars, Ibn-al Haytham badly needed the time and isolation to focus on writing his many treatises, including his great work on optics.
He was given an unwelcome opportunity, however, when he was imprisoned in Egypt between 1011 and 1021, having failed a task set him by a caliph in Cairo to help solve the problem of regulating the flooding of the Nile.
While still in Basra, Ibn al-Haytham had claimed that the Nile's autumn flood waters could be held by a system of dykes and canals, thereby preserved as reservoirs until the summer's droughts.
But on arrival in Cairo, he soon realised that his scheme was utterly impractical from an engineering perspective.
Yet rather than admit his mistake to the dangerous and murderous caliph, Ibn-al Haytham instead decided to feign madness as a way to escape punishment.
This promptly led to him being placed under house arrest, thereby granting him 10 years of seclusion in which to work.
Planetary motion
He was only released after the caliph's death. He returned to Iraq where he composed a further 100 works on a range of subjects in physics and mathematics.
While travelling through the Middle East during my filming, I interviewed an expert in Alexandria who showed me recently discovered work by Ibn al-Haytham on astronomy.
It seems he had developed what is called celestial mechanics, explaining the orbits of the planets, which was to lead to the eventual work of Europeans like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton.
It is incredible that we are only now uncovering the debt that today's physicists owe to an Arab who lived 1,000 years ago.
sorry I keep forgetting the link, I know its C & P but with UT missing we all have to do our bit and its a damn good read IMO
posted
It is a good read indeed, and the list of contributions goes on and on… Reading Ayisha’s post, we can extract the following understandings:
1) Most of the scientists / inventors were not Arabs of the peninsula; they were from nations such as Iraq and Persia. Or as historically called (بلاد ما وراء النهرين). 2) All those scientists studied and inhaled from the Greek civilization and using it as a platform to further enhance the Human civilization because civilizations are not for a certain sect or race, but it belongs to all humanity. 3) Ijtihad wasn’t only confined to physics and mathematics, but also included religious studies and religious philosophy, which unfortunately, we can not do today. 4) All credit goes to the “atmosphere” of freedom, the more freedom humans gets, the more chances they can invent, and vice versa. 5) The door of Ijtihad was slammed shut in the 2nd Abbasids dynasty, calling new inventions as Bid’a, thus prosecuting any attempt of usage of the mind, narrowing religion only into text practices, which opened the door wide for tawaqol (depending) and reciting without understanding, all the way up till Muslims of today.
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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IMO, by trying to use hadith to somehow explain Quran you stay shut in the dark ages, Allah is wayyyyyyyyy more clever than that and His words cannot be understood properly without looking at a much wider picture, one which the hadith writers had no idea about but one which science and real scientists have a great knowledge of.
Look at this for instance
015.029 YUSUFALI: "When I have fashioned him (in due proportion) and breathed into him of My spirit, fall ye down in obeisance unto him."
032.009 YUSUFALI: But He fashioned him in due proportion, and breathed into him something of His spirit. And He gave you (the faculties of) hearing and sight and feeling (and understanding): little thanks do ye give!
038.072 YUSUFALI: "When I have fashioned him (in due proportion) and breathed into him of My spirit, fall ye down in obeisance unto him."
054.049 YUSUFALI: Verily, all things have We created in proportion and measure.
075.038 YUSUFALI: Then did he become a leech-like clot; then did (Allah) make and fashion (him) in due proportion.
082.007 YUSUFALI: Him Who created thee. Fashioned thee in due proportion, and gave thee a just bias;
087.002 YUSUFALI: Who hath created, and further, given order and proportion;
-------------------- If you don't learn from your mistakes, there's no sense making them. Posts: 15090 | From: http://www.egyptalk.com/forum/ | Registered: Jul 2004
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quote:Originally posted by ** Ahmad**: we should love Allah and the prophet and be so strict with anyone who dares to insult them .Do you need me to post the complete opinion in this thread?!
Instead of talking about very deep ideas like the one you have issued ,we should be talking about the Exact meaning of Allah and the message of Islam ,the manners that Islam want to spread... etc
The topic you are issuing IMO will not be of a great benefit for forum members but the real face of Islam will,
What kind of BS is that? do you mean to say that Islam discourages Muslims from discussing any ideas whether "deep" or not and restricts its adherents to only think about "the Exact meaning of Allah and the message of Islam"? This is so lame and pathetic, and can only result in Muslims becoming ignorant of the world surrounding them and this in turn will inevitably cause them to become intellectually handicapped no matter how much they know about Islam! As far as I know, Islam never forbade people from studying or discussing other matters concerning their lives whether secular or religious, and this is what made early Muslims study Greek philosophy and all other branches of science until they managed to use this knowledge to enlighten the world and bring it out of the dark ages, do you mean that Muslims of today cannot even discuss what Muslims in the 8th and 9th centuries were able to discuss? Is this really the mentality of the Muslim youth nowadays?
Seems to me you're only avoiding the subject because you haven't got a clue!
just an innocnet question r u muslim?
you always advise so no harm to know yuor religion/
I did not say that Islam encourages silly thinking ,I wanted to say that the question raised by subz is not known to majority of muslims so why should we discusss something people generally will not hear about in their whole life?!
I have got a clue and I can participate but you have to deal with the fact that from now on I will not be regular poster ,i just do not have the time
by the way i am trying to read all the posts right now
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posted
قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم "أوثق عرى الإيمان هو المولاة في الله والمعادة في الله والحب في الله والبغض في الله" صحيح البخاري
Posts: 657 | From: Cairo | Registered: Nov 2005
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5)The door of Ijtihad was slammed shut in the 2nd Abbasids dynasty, calling new inventions as Bid’a, thus prosecuting any attempt of usage of the mind, narrowing religion only into text practices, which opened the door wide for tawaqol (depending) and reciting without understanding, all the way up till Muslims of today.
I highly doubt the validity of this info,,Can you please be more specific of the term "2nd abbassids dysnast"??Do you mean generally in the whole of islamic world or in some specific places or specific dates in the second abbassid era??
I'd appreciate if you provided some historical evidences or examples for the above info.
From my personal knowledge the door of ijtihad has never been shut in any islamic era since its opened,,I even dare to say until nowdays,,Or how we explain all of this differences between scholars and sects from the day it has been opened in explaining the islamic issues?Surely the ijtihad didnt stop by the 1st abbassid era,,Even loads of this scholars Ayisha mentioned in her posts were either in the 2nd abbassid era or after it,,Isnt it right?
Posts: 712 | Registered: Sep 2006
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quote:Originally posted by Ayisha: one which the hadith writers had no idea about but one which science and real scientists have a great knowledge of.
For the record,,Many of the scholars you mentioned were also hadith students and teachers as well,,Such as Imam (Jafaar Al Sadeq) who mentioned in the list above,,He was one of the greatest Hadith and Sunna and Fiqh teachers,,And the interesting thing one of his own students was Imam (Abu Hanifa Al Nomaan) one of the well known hadith/fiqh scholars who put one of the four madhabs and Imam Malik Ibn Anas as well the founder of Maliki madhab.
Me personally dont think that Hadith scholars were just fools who had no idea about things and write it out of just being fools or evil,,So unfair judgment to them IMHO,,They were in the same time were the scientists were and even some of them were the both beings Hadith scholar/scientist in the same time.
Posts: 712 | Registered: Sep 2006
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quote:Originally posted by Sub-zero: It is a good read indeed, and the list of contributions goes on and on… Reading Ayisha’s post, we can extract the following understandings:
1)Most of the scientists / inventors were not Arabs of the peninsula; they were from nations such as Iraq and Persia. Or as historically called (بلاد ما وراء النهرين).
I'd appreciate if you cleared what this point suppose as well to tell??,,Because the same goes too for Hadith/Fiqh/Arabic scholars such as Imam Bokhari,,Layth Bin Saad,,Abu Hanifa Nomaan,,Sebweeh,,Al Kassaee'..and many more.
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from old days till today ,Fiqh is an essential part in understanding the Whole Islamic Religion and in fact ,no-legislation can be done without it!
Posts: 2417 | From: Cairo | Registered: Jun 2009
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quote:Originally posted by Sub-zero: قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم "أوثق عرى الإيمان هو المولاة في الله والمعادة في الله والحب في الله والبغض في الله" صحيح البخاري
حاجة غريبة جدا الموضوع بتاع الولاء و البراء بيتكلم عن حب الله والنبي و مقت من عاداهم و أنا قلت كده
Posts: 2417 | From: Cairo | Registered: Jun 2009
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posted
Well,,Thank you for informing me..Its so nice from you really.
I'd appreciate so much then IF you want,,Can you please update my personal knowledge and tell me WHEN specfically the door of ijtihad has been closed,,Was there something like a HUGE INFINITE FATWA in specific date/day which said the ijtihad has been closed and whoever opening it shall be throwen from the everest mount??If so who have issued this infinite fatwa??,,Who that infinite being who own/monopolize the keys of ijtihad door and decided to close it??,,And after it being closed Are scholars/thinkers stopped from any sort of ijtihad and ALL of them just narrowed religion only into text practice as Sub-Zero mentioned above??,,And what happened to those who tried to do the ijtihad after the door of it get closed??killed,,burnt to death..anything??
And for what you explain the differences between those three scholars/Imams or whatever you calling them "Imam Shawkani" who lived in year 1173 almost in the Ottoman era,,And "Imam Mohammed Abdo" born in 1849,,And hmmmmm The man above in that thread "Mohammed Sayid Tantawi" who born in 1928.
And much more thanks if you cleared for me your concept about ijtihad to make sure we do talk about the same thing with no possible misunderstandings??
Thank you in advance.
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posted
The door of independent judgements on the Law is open, but at the present time there are Six Obstacles to entering it.
THE FIRST: In winter when the storms are fierce even small holes are blocked up, and it is in no way reasonable to open up new doors. And under the onslaught of a mighty flood, to make openings in the wall in order to repair it leads to being drowned. In just the same way, at this time of denial and the assault of the customs of Europe and the legion of innovations and the destruction of misguidance, to open up new doors in the citadel of Islam in the name of ijtihad, and make openings that will be the means of those bent on destruction scaling the walls and entering it, is a crime against Islam.
THE SECOND: The essential teachings of religion demand that independent judgements do not enter them, for they are specified and definite. Moreover, they are like basic food and sustenance. At this time while all effort and endeavour should be expended on their being upheld and raised to life, they are being abandoned and degraded. So to give them up, despite their being among the theoretical matters of Islam and due to being the pure and sincere interpretations of the first generations of Islam are not inadequate for the needs of all times, and to make new interpretations of the Law in arbitrary fashion, is an innovation and betrayal of Islam.
THE THIRD: Just as varying goods in the market are sought after according to the season; they are in demand one after the other, so too, in the display of the world and market of human society and civilization, each century different goods are sought after and are in demand; they are displayed in the market, demand attracts them, gazes are turned on them, minds are drawn by them. Like at the present time the goods of politics and securing the life of this world and the demand of philosophy are sought after, for example. And in the age of the righteous ones of the first generations of Islam and in the market of that time, deducing from the Word of the Creator of the Heavens and the Earth His wishes and what He wants of us were the most sought-after goods, and obtaining the means to gain through the light of prophethood and the Qur'an eternal happiness in the world of the hereafter, which had been revealed to such a degree it could not be concealed.
At that time, since minds, hearts and spirits were turned with all their strength to understanding the wishes of the Sustainer of the Heavens and the Earth, the discussions, conversations, events, and circumstances of man's social life all looked to that. Since they occurred in accordance with those wishes, whoever had high ability, his heart and nature unconsciously received instruction in knowledge of God from everything. He received knowledge from the circumstances, events, and discussions that took place at that time. As though everything became a teacher for such a person, and inculcated in his nature and disposition the preparatory knowledge for independent judgements. That natural instruction illuminated him to such a degree that he was almost capable of interpreting the Law without acquiring the knowledge, to be illuminated without fire... Thus, when someone capable who received such natural instruction in this way began to work at interpreting the Law, his capacity which had become like a match manifested the mystery of Light upon Light; he became qualified to interpret it (mujtehid) swiftly and in a brief time.
At this time, however, due to the domination of European civilization and the supremacy of natural philosophy and the preponderance of the conditions of worldly life, minds and hearts have become scattered, and endeavour and favour divided. Minds have become strangers to non-material matters. Thus, it is because of this that if someone now was to memorize the Qur'an at the age of four and have the intelligence of a mujtehid like Sufyan ibn-i Uyeyne, who held discussions with religious scholars at an early age, he would need ten times longer than Sufyan to become qualified to interpret the Law. If Sufyan acquired the learning in ten years, this man would need one hundred years. Because the period of Sufyan's natural study began at the age of reason. His disposition and abilities were slowly prepared and illuminated; they took lessons from everything and became like a match. But his counterpart at the present time, since his thought is submerged in philosophy, his mind plunged in politics, and his heart is giddy at the life of this world, his disposition and abilities have grown distant from interpretation of the Law. For sure, they have become distant from interpretation of the Shari'a to the degree they have been preoccupied with the modern sciences, and have remained backward in regard to it to the extent he has become learned in the physical sciences. Therefore, he may not say: "I am as intelligent as him. Why can't I on a level with him?" He does not have the right to say this, and he cannot be on a level with him.
THE FOURTH: Just as within a body is the inclination to expand, for its growth and development. And, since it is from within, the inclination to expand is a being perfected for the body. Whereas if it is an inclination for expansion from outside it, it is to rip the body's skin; to destroy it; it is not expansion. In the same way, when the inclination to expand and will to interpret the Law were present in those within the sphere of Islam through the door of perfect taqwa and the way of conforming to the essential teachings of Islam, like the righteous early generations, that was a perfection and a being perfected. But if such an inclination and desire come from those who give up the essentials, prefer the life of this world to that of the hereafter, and are tainted with materialist philosophy, it is the means of destroying the body of Islam and casting off the chain of the Shari'a from the neck.
THE FIFTH: Three points of view make interpretation of the Law earthly at this time, and remove it from being heavenly. Whereas the Shari'a is heavenly, revealed, and since they make known its hidden ordinances, interpretations of the Shari'a also are heavenly.
THE FIRST: The wisdom of an ordinance is one thing, while the reason for it is something different. Wisdom and benefit are the cause of its choice, not the means of its being necessitated and created. And the reason is the means for its existence. For example, the obligatory prayers are shortened while travelling; two rak'ats are performed. The reason for this permission of the Shari'a is the journey, while its wisdom is the hardship. If there is the journey and no hardship, the prayers are still shortened. For there is the reason. But if there is no journey and still hardship, it may not be the reason for shortening the prayers. Thus, contrary to this fact, the view at this time sets up the benefit and wisdom in place of the reason, and makes its judgement in accordance with that. Such an interpretation is certainly earthly, not heavenly.
THE SECOND: The view at the present time looks primarily to worldly happiness, whereas the view of the Shari'a looks primarily to happiness in the hereafter, and to happiness in this world in second place and indirectly as the means to the hereafter. That is to say, the view of this time is a stranger to the spirit of the Shari'a; in which case, it may not make interpretations in its name.
THE THIRD: There is a rule: Necessity makes permissible what is forbidden. This rule is not universal. So long as it is not by way of what is forbidden, necessity causes what is forbidden to be licit. But if something has become a necessity due to abuse and for illicit reasons, it may not the means to ordinances permitting it, and may not form an excuse. For example, if, through ill choice someone makes himself drunk in an unlawful way, according to scholars of the Shari'a, his actions act against him and may not be counted as excused. If he divorces his wife, the divorce is in force. And if he commits a crime, he receives the punishment. But if it is not through ill choice, the divorce is not in force, neither does he receive punishment. And, for example, even if an alcoholic is addicted to alcohol to the degree of necessity, he may not say: "It is a necessity, and lawful for me."
Thus, at this time there are many matters which have reached the degree of necessity and have taken on the form of a general calamity afflicting people, and which, since they have arisen from ill choice, illicit desires, and forbidden acts, may not be the means of ordinances permitting them and making what is unlawful lawful. However, since those who make interpretations at the present time make those necessities the means to ordinances of the Shari'a, their interpretations are earthly, the products of their own fancies, tainted by philosophy, and cannot be heavenly or revealed, or in accordance with the Shari'a. However, if exercise of authority concerning the Divine ordinances of the Creator of the Heavens and the Earth and interference in the worship of His servants is without the Creator's permission, that exercise of authority and interference are rejected. For example, a number of the heedless and neglectful approve the changing of some of the marks of Islam like the Friday Sermon, and substituting the language of each country for Arabic, for two reasons:
The First: "So that in that way the mass of Muslims will understand current politics." But current politics has become so intermixed with lies and trickery and evil that it has become like the very whisperings of Satan. And the pulpit is the seat of delivering Divine revelation, thus, political whisperings do not have the right to rise to that high position.
The Second: "The Friday Sermon is for understanding the admonitions of certain Suras of the Qur'an." Yes, if the majority of the Islamic nation conformed to the essential teachings and incontestable matters of Islam and the ordinances which are well-known and carried them out, then the reading of the Sermon in the known language and the translation of the Qur'an, if it was possible, might have been desirable, in order to understand the theoretical matters of the Shari'a and its subtle matters and abstruse teachings. But the well-known, definite ordinances of Islam like the five daily prayers, fasting in Ramazan, and Zekat, and the unlawfulness of murder, fornication, and wine are neglected. The ordinary people are not in need of learning their necessity or unlawfulness, but through encouragement and warning, to be reminded of those sacred decrees, and, through their sense of belief and vein of Islam being stirred, to be prompted, encouraged, and reminded to conform to them. And however lowly and ignorant they may be, they understand the following brief meaning from the Qur'an and Arabic Sermon: "The preacher and the reciter of the Qur'an are recalling the pillars of belief and Islam which are known by me and everyone, and teaching us, and reciting them." A longing for them is born in their hearts. What words are there in the universe which can be compared with the miraculous, instructive reminders, warnings, and encouragement of the All-Wise Qur'an, which comes from the Sublime Throne?
THE SIXTH: Since the great interpreters of the Law among the righteous early generations of Islam were close to the time of the Companions of the Prophet, the age of light and age of truth, they were able to receive a pure light and make pure interpretations. But the interpreters of the Law at this time look at the book of reality from behind so many veils and from such a long distance that they can see even its clearest letters only with difficulty.
If you say: "The Companions also were human beings and not free of error and differences, while the means of interpretation of the Law and the ordinances of the Shari'a is the justice and truthfulness of the Companions, on which the Islamic community have agreed, saying: "All the Companions were just and all spoke the truth."
The Answer: Yes, the absolute majority of the Companions of the Prophet were lovers of the truth, truthfulness, and justice. For in that age, the ugliness of lies and falsehood was shown in all its ugliness and the beauty of right and truthfulness was shown in all its beauty in such a way that the distance between them was as far as from the ground to the Divine Throne. A separation between them was apparent from the depths of Musaylima the Liar at the lowest of the low to the degree of truthfulness of the Prophet Muhammed (Peace and blessings be upon him) at the highest of the high. Indeed, just as it was lying that brought Musaylima to the lowest of the low, so too it was truthfulness and right which raised Muhammed the Trustworthy to the highest of the high.
Thus, the Companions, who held elevated sentiments and worshipped good morals and were illuminated with the light of the conversation of the Sun of Prophethood, did not stretch out their hands to the buffoonery and filth of the lying in Musaylima's shop, which was so ugly and the cause of descent, and shrank from unbelief. And so too they shrank from lying, the friend of unbelief, and sought as far as they were able - and especially in relating the ordinances of the Shari'a and propagating them - truth, truthfulness, and right, which are so fine and the means of pride and glory, ascent and progress, and were the thing most in demand from the elevated treasury of the Glory of Prophethood, and which illuminate man's social life with their beauteous splendour, and they were in conformity with them and desirous of them; this is certain, definite, and necessary. Whereas at this time, the distance between truth and lying has become so narrow that they are now quite simply shoulder to shoulder. It is extremely easy to pass from truthfulness to lying. Lying is even preferred to truthfulness due to the propaganda of politics and diplomacy. And so, if the most ugly and the finest things are sold in the same shop for the same price, for sure, the jewel of truthfulness and right, which is most elevated and passes to the essence of reality, will not be obtained blindly relying on the word and skill of the shopkeeper.
quote:Originally posted by Aliym: I highly doubt the validity of this info.
You doubt? Like I made it up or something? Anyway, historical facts are all over the place for any researcher, please feel free to prove me wrong.
The Ijtihad door being closed is a term used by historians to describe the diminishing of progressive thinking during a certain era.
Ijtihad is mainly associated with the Shi'a Muslim Jafari school of jurisprudence. The "gates of ijtihad" were "closed" in the 10th century in Sunni fiqh, meaning that ijtihad is not practiced in Sunni Islam, and Sunnis, unlike Shi'as, have to follow rulings interpreted in the 10th century.
Hence a consensus gradually established itself to the effect that from that time onwards no one could be deemed to have the necessary qualifications for independent reasoning in religious law, and that all future activity would have to be confined to the explanation, application, and, at the most, interpretation of the doctrine as it had been laid down once and for all.
Al-Ma'mun the infamous Abbassy Caliph introduced the mihna (which is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions only in the sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious test, and a loyalty oath) with the intension to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and in consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith.
quote:Originally posted by Aliym: From my personal knowledge the door of ijtihad has never been shut in any islamic era since its opened,,I even dare to say until nowdays
If we agree that the Islamic scientists in all branches reached the peek in sciences and inventions during that time, then why did it stop?? Doesn't that logically mean that something drastic occurred to stop that flow of inventions? Nowadays we are importers of the products of other civilizations, what does that say?
It clearly says that human society progresses only if you have people willing to challenge orthodoxy, it will progress only if you allow an "atmosphere of freedom" of thinking. It should be noted that those great thinkers and scientists that you mentioned a few of were accused of blasphemy or apostasy. The likes of Bashshar Ibn Burd, Avicenna, Averroes, Al-Razi and Al-Ma'arri were most likely apostates.
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