quote: Body proportions in Late Pleistocene Europe and modern human origins. T W Holliday
Body proportions covary with climate, apparently as the result of climatic selection. Ontogenic research and migrant studies have demonstrated that body proportions are largely genetically controlled and are under low selective rates; thus studies of body form can provide evidence for evolutionarily short-term dispersals and/or gene flow. Following these observations, competing models of modern human origins yield different predictions concerning body proportion shifts in Late Pleistocene Europe. Replacement predicts that the earliest modern Europeans will possess "tropical" body proportions (assuming Africa is the center of origin), while Regional Continuity permits only minor shifts in body shape, due to climatic change and/or improved cultural buffering. This study tests these predictions via analyses of osteometric data reflective of trunk height and breadth, limb proportions and relative body mass for samples of Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP), Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP) and Mesolithic (MES) humans and 13 recent African and European populations. Results reveal a clear tendency for the EUP sample to cluster with recent Africans, while LUP and MES samples cluster with recent Europeans. These results refute the hypothesis of local continuity in Europe, and are consistent with an interpretation of elevated gene flow (and population dispersal?) from Africa, followed by subsequent climatic adaptation to colder conditions. These data do not, however, preclude the possibility of some (albeit small) contribution of genes from Neandertals to succeeding populations, as is postulated in Bräuer's "Afro-European Sapiens" model.
quote:Brachial and crural indices of European late Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic humans.
T W Holliday
Among recent humans brachial and crural indices are positively correlated with mean annual temperature, such that high indices are found in tropical groups. However, despite inhabiting glacial Europe, the Upper Paleolithic Europeans possessed high indices, prompting Trinkaus (1981) to argue for gene flow from warmer regions associated with modern human emergence in Europe. In contrast, Frayer et al.(1993) point out that Late Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Europeans should not exhibit tropically-adapted limb proportions, since, even assuming replacement, their ancestors had experienced cold stress in glacial Europe for at least 12 millennia. This study investigates three questions tied to the brachial and crural indices among Late Pleistocene and recent humans. First, which limb segments (either proximal or distal) are primarily responsible for variation in brachial and crural indices? Second, are these indices reflective of overall limb elongation? And finally, do the Late Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Europeans retain relatively and/or absolutely long limbs? Results indicate that in the lower limb, the distal limb segment contributes most of the variability to intralimb proportions, while in the upper limb the proximal and distal limb segments appear to be equally variable. Additionally, brachial and crural indices do not appear to be a good measure of overall limb length, and thus, while the Late Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic humans have significantly higher (i.e., tropically-adapted) brachial and crural indices than do recent Europeans, they also have shorter (i.e., cold-adapted) limbs. The somewhat paradoxical retention of "tropical" indices in the context of more "cold-adapted" limb length is best explained as evidence for Replacement in the European Late Pleistocene, followed by gradual cold adaptation in glacial Europe.
quote:Body proportions covary with climate, apparently as the result of climatic selection. Ontogenetic research and migrant studies have demonstrated that body proportions are largely genetically controlled and are under low selective rates; thus studies of body form can provide evidence for evolutionarily short-term dispersals and/or gene flow. Following these observations, competing models of modern human origins yield different predictions concerning body proportion shifts in Late Pleistocene Europe. Replacement predicts that the earliest modern Europeans will possess “tropical” body proportions (assuming Africa is the center of origin), while Regional Continuity permits only minor shifts in body shape, due to climatic change and/or improved cultural buffering. This study tests these predictions via analyses of osteometric data reflective of trunk height and breadth, limb proportions and relative body mass for samples of Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP), Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP) and Mesolithic (MES) humans and 13 recent African and European populations.Results reveal a clear tendency for the EUP sample to cluster with recent Africans, while LUP and MES samples cluster with recent Europeans. These results refute the hypothesis of local continuity in Europe, and are consistent with an interpretation of elevated gene flow (and population dispersal?) from Africa, followed by subsequent climatic adaptation to colder conditions. These data do not, however, preclude the possibility of some (albeit small) contribution of genes from Neandertals to succeeding populations, as is postulated in Bräuer’s “Afro-European Sapiens” model.
-Body proportions in Late Pleistocene Europe and modern human origins☆
...
quote:"In other words, all non-Africans carry M168. Of course, Africans carrying the M168 mutation today are the descendants of the African subpopulation from which the migrants originated.... Thus, the Australian/Eurasian Adam (the ancestor of all non-Africans) was an East African Man. "
-Cavalli-Sforza: Genes, Culture, and Human Evolution. Pg 187.
Depigmented Africans trying to claim they gave Africans our features..
Posts: 8804 | From: The fear of his majesty had entered their hearts, they were powerless | Registered: Nov 2007
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quote:Originally posted by Perahu: This is a typical phenomenon among mongrel North American Afroloonies with no heritage. You will never find ethnic Africans behaving in this way, they have more dignifity.
Every afronut or self-proclaimed ''black'' on this forum is not pure Black/Negroid, but has a high degree of white admixture:
Osiron:
quote:I am a non-Negroid Black person of Morroccan, Jewish, and Fulani origin (with one great-great Grandfather of Scottish origin).
Quite a mix there.
Bettyboo:
quote: My grandmother is a ukranian jew
The other afronut from Brazil, with a name beginning with 'M' also admitted his grandparents (both on one side) are white portugese.
DougM another afronut posted his DNA analyses which revealed 10-15% of his ancestry is white european.
So all these afronuts have white admixture.
Just call me jari, not sure what creole (french) is, does that mean some sort of white french admixture?
anyway all these self-proclaimed ''blacks'' are mongrels or mutts.
Posts: 2408 | From: My mother's basement | Registered: Dec 2010
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quote:Just call me jari, not sure what creole (french) is, does that mean some sort of white french admixture?
My father is Mulatto, Half French(I traced my last name which is of French Origins to New Orleans/Louisiana) Half black.
There is no such thing as race, Im sure you probably have some "Negriod" blood somewhere down the line.. Posts: 8804 | From: The fear of his majesty had entered their hearts, they were powerless | Registered: Nov 2007
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quote:Originally posted by cassiterides: Every afronut or self-proclaimed ''black'' on this forum is not pure Black/Negroid, but has a high degree of white admixture:
Indeed, I always knew they were mongrels without any dignity.
Posts: 695 | From: وكان المصريون القدماء القوقازين | Registered: Jan 2011
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quote:Originally posted by -Just Call Me Jari-: LOL, Sand Nigger Bitch now you are gonna cry. You come on here disrespecting Africans Im going to Burn your ass, because I know history, European, Arab and African.
Most Africans don't take you Sand Niggers serious, they know how irrelevent you are but many posters here are Not African American, I probably the only one.
Go whine like a bitch to someone else, you faggot sand nigger bitch. You come here disrespecting my people Im going to give it back to you 100 fold.
Haha, most Africans respect Arabs. Nearly half of Africa claims to be Arabs.
Posts: 695 | From: وكان المصريون القدماء القوقازين | Registered: Jan 2011
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posted
first hand primary sources on African Kindoms, Cities and Cultures..
"We ... traveled by sea to the city of Kulwa [Kilwa in East Africa]...Most of its people are Zunuj, extremely black...The city of Kulwa is amongst the most beautiful of cities and most elegantly built... Their uppermost virtue is religion and righteousness and they are Shafi'i in rite."
Ibn Battuta, A.D. 1331
I embarked at Maqdashaw [Mogadishu] for the Sawahil [Swahili] country, with the object of visiting the town of Kulwa [Kilwa, Quiloa] in the land of the Zanj.
We came to Mambasa [Mombasa], a large island two days' journey by sea from the Sawihil country. It possesses no territory on the mainland. They have fruit trees on the island, but no cereals, which have to be brought to them from the Sawahil. Their food consists chiefly of bananas and fish.The inhabitants are pious, honourable, and upright, and they have well-built wooden mosques.
-Ibn Bhattuta
From Tumbuktu I sailed down the Nile on a small boat, hollowed out of a single piece of wood.
I went on . . . to Gawgaw [Gogo], which is a large city on the Nile, and one of the finest towns in the Negrolands. It is also one of their biggest and best-provisioned towns, with rice in plenty, milk, and fish, and there is a species of cucumber there called "inani" which has no equal. The buying and selling of its inhabitants is done with cowry-shells, and the same is the case at Malli [the city of Mali]. I stayed there about a month, and then set out in the direction of Tagadda by land with a large caravan of merchants from Ghadamas.
-Ibn Bhattuta
The name of this kingdom is a modern one, after a city which was built by a king named Mansa Suleyman in the year 610 of the hegira [1232 CE] around twelve miles from a branch of the Niger River. (1)
The houses of Timbuktu are huts made of clay-covered wattles with thatched roofs. In the center of the city is a temple built of stone and mortar, built by an architect named Granata, (2) and in addition there is a large palace, constructed by the same architect, where the king lives. The shops of the artisans, the merchants, and especially weavers of cotton cloth are very numerous. Fabrics are also imported from Europe to Timbuktu, borne by Berber merchants. (3)
The women of the city maintain the custom of veiling their faces, except for the slaves who sell all the foodstuffs. The inhabitants are very rich, especially the strangers who have settled in the country; so much so that the current king (4) has given two of his daughters in marriage to two brothers, both businessmen, on account of their wealth. There are many wells containing sweet water in Timbuktu; and in addition, when the Niger is in flood canals deliver the water to the city. Grain and animals are abundant, so that the consumption of milk and butter is considerable. But salt is in very short supply because it is carried here from Tegaza, some 500 miles from Timbuktu. I happened to be in this city at a time when a load of salt sold for eighty ducats. The king has a rich treasure of coins and gold ingots. One of these ingots weighs 970 pounds. (5)
The royal court is magnificent and very well organized. When the king goes from one city to another with the people of his court, he rides a camel and the horses are led by hand by servants. If fighting becomes necessary, the servants mount the camels and all the soldiers mount on horseback. When someone wishes to speak to the king, he must kneel before him and bow down; but this is only required of those who have never before spoken to the king, or of ambassadors. The king has about 3,000 horsemen and infinity of foot-soldiers armed with bows made of wild fennel [?] which they use to shoot poisoned arrows. This king makes war only upon neighboring enemies and upon those who do not want to pay him tribute. When he has gained a victory, he has all of them--even the children--sold in the market at Timbuktu.
Only small, poor horses are born in this country. The merchants use them for their voyages and the courtiers to move about the city. But the good horses come from Barbary. They arrive in a caravan and, ten or twelve days later, they are led to the ruler, who takes as many as he likes and pays appropriately for them.
The king is a declared enemy of the Jews. He will not allow any to live in the city. If he hears it said that a Berber merchant frequents them or does business with them, he confiscates his goods. There are in Timbuktu numerous judges, teachers and priests, all properly appointed by the king. He greatly honors learning. Many hand-written books imported from Barbary are also sold. There is more profit made from this commerce than from all other merchandise.
-Leo Africanus
Posts: 8804 | From: The fear of his majesty had entered their hearts, they were powerless | Registered: Nov 2007
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posted
I am not even a Muslim, lol. My fam are Orthodox Christians (Cypriot & Lebanese origin) but I am agnostic.
Posts: 695 | From: وكان المصريون القدماء القوقازين | Registered: Jan 2011
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Most Arabs don't go around talking **** to Africans. This type of behavior is a modern one. Originally You all came on you knees asking for acceptance and for us to accept your religion and to trade with us. My Ancestors and the Nubians and other Africans kept you Sand Niggers at bay, you did not even penetrate below the Desert until After Colonialism.
So if you dare go to Africa or Africans and talk the noise you do one here, see how much respect they will show you. You are leeches, you smile in our faces and talk crap behind our backs. F-kn litte peice of turd.
The Funny part is I know white folks who brag about killing you Sand Niggers in Iraq/Afghanistan. Even Cassiteredes does'nt want you and your kind in London, yet you think you are special to Europeans.
quote:Originally posted by Perahu:
quote:Originally posted by -Just Call Me Jari-: LOL, Sand Nigger Bitch now you are gonna cry. You come on here disrespecting Africans Im going to Burn your ass, because I know history, European, Arab and African.
Most Africans don't take you Sand Niggers serious, they know how irrelevent you are but many posters here are Not African American, I probably the only one.
Go whine like a bitch to someone else, you faggot sand nigger bitch. You come here disrespecting my people Im going to give it back to you 100 fold.
Haha, most Africans respect Arabs. Nearly half of Africa claims to be Arabs.
Posts: 8804 | From: The fear of his majesty had entered their hearts, they were powerless | Registered: Nov 2007
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quote:Originally posted by -Just Call Me Jari-: My father is Mulatto, Half French(I traced my last name which is of French Origins to New Orleans/Louisiana) Half black.
So that makes you 1/4 white, and so one pair of your grandparents must be white.
You've been posting crap about white people and their history, when your own grandparents are white. lol. I wonder what they think about your views.
Most people who deny races exist are mixed race people because they have an identity crisis, you prove what i've been saying for years.
Posts: 2408 | From: My mother's basement | Registered: Dec 2010
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posted
I have no problem with White People and there are aspects of White History and culture that I respect and admire. I would probably not be an agnostic if not for White people.
I have given my respect to white people and have came into conflict with many posters on my respect for white people.
The problem I have is you and other whites who white wash history. You keep coming here trying to say Africans did not create civilization so I will give you the truth and fight fire with fire.
And no where have I disrespected white people the way you do blacks. No where have I posted Images of Whites claiming they are grotesque or called they ugly or claimed they had no high civilization.
quote:Originally posted by cassiterides:
quote:Originally posted by -Just Call Me Jari-: My father is Mulatto, Half French(I traced my last name which is of French Origins to New Orleans/Louisiana) Half black.
So that makes you 1/4 white, and so one pair of your grandparents must be white.
You've been posting crap about white people and their history, when your own grandparents are white. lol. I wonder what they think about your views.
Most people who deny races exist are mixed race people because they have an identity crisis, you prove what i've been saying for years.
Posts: 8804 | From: The fear of his majesty had entered their hearts, they were powerless | Registered: Nov 2007
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quote:Originally posted by Paironuts: I am not even a Muslim, lol. My fam are Orthodox Christians (Cypriot & Lebanese origin) but I am agnostic.
Ah. This explains why you use the moniker of an African prince yet white-wash Africans. Because you desperately want to de-Africanize and white-wash E1b1b since such lineage is prominent among both areas of your descent.
Good luck with that. LOLPosts: 26236 | From: Atlanta, Georgia, USA | Registered: Feb 2005
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quote:Originally posted by Djehuti: Ah. This explains why you use the moniker of an African prince yet white-wash Africans. Because you desperately want to de-Africanize and white-wash E1b1b since such lineage is prominent among both areas of your descent.
Good luck with that. LOL
I barely talk about haplogroups on here anyway, I find them boring overall. Autosomal DNA interests me more, and well, practically all Northeast Africans have Caucasoid/proto-Caucasoid blood.
Posts: 695 | From: وكان المصريون القدماء القوقازين | Registered: Jan 2011
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posted
^ And again what is the basis of caca-soid? What exactly constitutes such??
Posts: 26236 | From: Atlanta, Georgia, USA | Registered: Feb 2005
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Spencer wells: we as a species are less genetically diverse than other primates. "It's worth getting the message out, that we are related to one another, that we are much more closely related genetically than people may suspect from glancing around and looking at these surface features that distinguish us; so that's an important social message," Wells says. "Race, in terms of deep-seated biological differences, doesn't exist scientifically. We are 99.9 per cent identical roughly, at the genetic level. That's actually a remarkably low level of genetic diversity compared to other species of large primates. It represents a population bottleneck event some 70,000 years ago when the population dropped down to as few as 2,000 people. We came back from that, and our genome reflects that."
Posts: 1064 | Registered: Jan 2011
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"Pure white evolution led to Neanderthals both in terms of paler skin and cold-adaptive limb proportions. African evolution led to anatomically modern humans.
QUOTE: "What was different about the Neanderthals? What did the Cro- Magnons think when they saw them for the first time? To begin with, the Neanderthals were very light-skinned and the Cro- Magnons were less so. "
--Juan Luis Arsuaga, Andy Klatt. 2004. The Neanderthal's Necklace: In Search of the First Thinkers
"This finding suggests that Neanderthals evolved a functional variant of the MC1R gene independently from modern humans as they dispersed into northerly latitudes, and thus supports the inference for the convergent evolution of depigmented skin in the Neanderthals lineage.." --Michael P. Muehlenbein. 2010. Human Evolutionary Biology
"Regarding environmental buffering, Trinkaus (1986 and this volume) reiterates that while Neanderthal limb proportions are suggestive of cold adaptation, no such indications are shown by Eurasian early modern humans. Their distinct limb proportions are instead indicative of an equatorial ancestry and better culturally based thermal protection.. the limb proportions of the Eurasian early modern samples are retentions of the African ancestral morphology of long limbs with long distal segments.." -- Erik Trinkaus (ed), 'The Emergence of Modern Humans", (C. Stringer p. 88). School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1989.
Some white "Racial Reality" or "biodiversity" proponents argue for European descent from NEanderthals "untainted" by Africa- a lily white "pure" line of white evolution.
Fine. Lets go with their approach for a moment. ----------------------------------------------------
Using it, we see then that the first whites were cold-adapted Neanderthals that failed to progress beyond the Stone Age despite a sometimes favorable environment with rich resources available (Lewin 1994). Ice Age Europe was not a cold hell but had variable climate and rich forest, woodland and aquatic resources, including ancient variants of wheat-like spelt and chick peas in place that could have been domesticated, along with ancestors of sheep, cattle and pigs. Despite tens of thousands of years with these advantages and resources however, white lineages failed to move beyond the Stone Age.
Thus, using the "biodiversity" approach, the first great "racial" split in the humanoid line involved white Neanderthals who colonized Europe, and Africans, who colonized Africa and went on to become anatomically modern humans.
The first “pure” white genetic output was thus brutish, primitive, dead end Neanderthals. By contrast, it was Africa that produced the future of humanity- anatomically modern humans, not cold-climate Europe. White NEanderthals survived, until they were supplanted by more advanced, modern tropically adapted humans from Africa that mingled with and replaced them. This would be the first instance of the hybridization that produced today's white Europeans. It was the coming of tropically adapted African variants into Europe that caused Europe to progress beyond the brutish “pure” white Neanderthal lineages. Continuing migrations from Africa and a mixture of African and Asian OOA migrants- all anatomically modern humans- caused a second round of mixed breeding in EUrope, and was to eventually replace the pure white Neanderthal lineages to yield today's European hybrid population. QUOTE:
^^"Middle Pleistocene Diversity in Africa and the Origin of Modern Humans Günter Bräuer1 -- There is wide agreement on a speciation event in Africa at around 0.8 or 0.9 mya when Homo erectus (or Homo ergaster) gave rise to a species named Homo heidelbergensis, or Homo rhodesiensis, or Homo sapiens. The new species expanded into Europe leading to the Neanderthal lineage, whereas in Africa it evolved into anatomically modern humans. The lineage of anatomical modernization can be subdivided into three groups, morphs, or grades: an early one including Bodo, Saldanha, Kabwe, Salé, a subsequent one including Florisbad, Laetoli H 18, Ileret (ER 3884), Jebel Irhoud, and early anatomically moderns with Omo Kibish, Herto and others." --Günter Bräuer, "Middle Pleistocene Diversity in Africa and the Origin of Modern Humans". IN: Modern Origins: A North African Perspective. 2012. Series: Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Hublin, Jean-Jacques; McPherron, Shannon P. (Eds.)
And
” Holliday (2000) examined postcranial morphology of the varied Levantine hominids from Qafzeh and Skhul(anatomically modern) and from Amud, Kebara and Tabun (Neanderthal). He determined that they were morphologically distinct; the anatomically moderns had tropically adapted body proportions, suggesting African origins, while the Neanderthals had cold adapted body proportions, suggesting European origins.” --Holliday 2000
This then could be another source of the Eurocentric inferiority complex. Pure white genetics produced only the savage Neanderthals. Africa by contrast, produced a better, more advanced human than white lineages. Today's whites still show some traces of Neanderthal genes, a throwback to their savage evolution. Some white writers argue that this Neanderthal remnant, could account for the white penchant for violence and murder. R. Bradley, advances this this theory in "The Iceman Inheritance."
So under this biodiversity approach, why then didn't pure white Europeans stay as NEanderthals? According to Bradley, they were replaced with the more advanced Africans and Asians. This diluted the savage white NEanderthal lineages, producing a better level of humanity. However the violent, savage nature of whites still remains, due to remnants of Neanderthal genes. Recent scientific findings showing European whites have traces of Neanderthal genes have been used by some claimants to support the Iceman theory. Some disagree with Bradley. Others argue that his theory of white ice age adaptation is true. Racial "biodiversity" proponents share general agreement along a spectrum with its central holding of pure white evolutionary lineages, "untainted" by "negro blood."
White European lineages [Neanderthals] were the first humans to engage in cannibalism
"Cannibalism is a good example. Several Mousterian sites, along which Moula-Guercy (France) stands out, have provided reasonably firm evidence of anthropic action on Neanderthal bones.. Defleur and colleagues (1999) compared the patters of ungulate and Neanderthal bones, the skeletal parts that were found and the tool marks on the bone fragments. They concluded that all the fragments with marks indicate prey that had been subject to butchery. This suggests that cannibalistic oractices existed among the Neanderthals.. But the question of cannibalism can be understood in another way. When Wolpoff was asked about the meaning of the evidence found at Moula-Guercy, he replied with a question: why should modern humans be the only violent ones? Arsuaga went even further in believing that Neanderthal cannibalistic behavior actually constituted a very human behavior, which revealed a human mind (Both cited by Culotta, 1999). " --Camilo J. Cela-Conde, Francisco José Ayala, 2007. Human evolution: trails from the past.
"But recent excavation by Alban Delfeur and Tim White at the 100,000 year old French cave of Moula-Guercy has demonstrated cannibalism beyond any reasonable doubt. The site contains butchered animal remains, predominantly red deer. Among the bones are the skulls of two young Neanderthals, their masseter muscles filleted and the tongue removed from at least one of them; the cut marks on the inner face of the mandible are virtually identical with those mode on the inside of the 12,5000-year-old modern human mandible from Gough's (New) Cave, [England] described in Chapter 3 (see p. 80). Crania of both deer and Neanderthals were broken open to get at the marrow.." --Timothy Taylor. 2005. The Buried Soul: How Humans Invented Death
-------------------- Note: I am not an "Egyptologist" as claimed by some still bitter, defeated, trolls creating fake profiles and posts elsewhere. Hapless losers, you still fail. My output of hard data debunking racist nonsense has actually INCREASED since you began.. Posts: 5905 | From: The Hammer | Registered: Aug 2008
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quote:Every self-proclaimed ''black'' on this forum is not pure Black/Negroid, but has a high degree of white admixture...
oh really now?
CA-SH*T-HE-RIDES....For someone who knows so much...you know so little...you shuda shamed to allow the online community to see how much stupidity is contained within that one body you have smh...
but ah who cuda school this internet duppy dunce-bat yah?
quote: perahu and cassiterides like to ignore facts
Considering how bacteria grow ina sh*t, CA-SH*T-HE-RIDES tongue soon rotten drop out from alla di sh*t and lies that collect and roll off it yuh see....
Posts: 3446 | From: U.S. by way of JA by way of Africa | Registered: Jan 2010
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quote:Originally posted by TruthAndRights: Soooooo...you would have NOOOOO problem with your sister or your daughter bringing this man home as a husband if she loved him dearly and he could well provide for all her needs and wants, then, correct? You would have nooooo problem with this man being your brother-in-law/the father of your niece/nephew or your son-in-law/father of your grandchild(ren), correct?
Since he is completely 'caucasoid'....ijs....
Religion would be the main issue, since my family is Eastern Orthodox. But I wouldn't see him as that racial different, his skull and facial features are Caucasoid.
see you smh....stop going 'round the thing and answer the rass question YES or NO...no one asked you alla that....
Posts: 3446 | From: U.S. by way of JA by way of Africa | Registered: Jan 2010
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The "racial reality" work below cited by race proponents seems strangely obsessed with black penis size. This may be part of the inferiority complex seen in white racists.
Racial Reality authors Sarich and Miele, cite a number of Greek depictions of Africans that show black penis sizes as larger than that of nearby whites. QUOTE:
"The genitalia of black Africans were also deemed noteworthy to the Greek and Roman artists. Within the same art piece, black males are depicted with penises larger than those of white figures, and in others are shown as being erect." --Vincent Sarich, Frank Miele. 2005. Race: The Reality of Human Differences. pg 41
Obsession with black penis size also enters into the work of other racist authors, like JP Rushton, who conducted detailed "self-assessment" in penis size compared to the potency exhibited by Negroid [sic] data..
QUOTE: "Then there is the issue of Rushton's data and disparate sources one of the most heavily cited in his earlier workd is an 1898 book, by an anonymous French army surgeon, a repository of anecdotal information about the penis, breast, and buttock size of different native populations. His reliance on these kinds of data led to some strong criticism. More recently Rushton has used a wider variety of sources, including census data, studies of military recruits, and brain scanning techniques. He argues that such data reinforce his original conclusion that human populations can be ordered in a scale of evolutionary advance from blacks, to whites, to Orientals." --Stringer and McKee, African Exodus 1996
and -- more obsession with Negro indexes on penis size. Note trembling "self-assessment" by white "biodiversity" author Rushton.. QUOTE:
"No criteria are ever set up to decide how these groups are established or what traits should be used in determin- ing membership. This means that his acceptance of "race" is ultimately arbitrary and subjective. When "the races" are compared in terms of appearance and performance in the quantities of uncritically collected data assembled in his book, "racial" identity is determined by "self-assessment." Rushton's basic units, then, are rooted in folk belief and not in biology.
The possibility that the vast majority of the human biological traits that have been shaped by evolution are clinally and independently distributed in association with the relevant selective forces is never once considered, and the word cline is simply missing. One running concern is how these folk categories compare on such matters as intelligence and reproductive behavior. Sex rears its head again and again in the discussion, with much of the information on comparative sexual performance based on "self- assessment." Rushton is obviously much taken with the "salience of... buttocks and breasts" (pp. 167, 231) as measures of sexuality, although there is a dearth of objectively collected data.
More telling is his evident fascination with the "Negroid" penis as an index of "potency" and libido. In his earlier publications on these matters, his information came from "self-assessment."
--FROM: Review: Racialism and Racist Agendas Author(s): C. Loring Brace Reviewed work(s):Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Perspective by J. Philippe Rushton Source: American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 98, No. 1 (Mar., 1996), pp. 176-177
WHite "biodiversity" scholars protected by university tenure, even as they solicit students to engage in penis size studies of negroid indexes.. Rushton was a tenured professor at UWO in the 1990s.
QUOTE: "In other words, Rushton took advantage of students who didn’t know that in the case of his study they had the option not to participate without incurring additional work. As punishment, the psychology department barred him from using students as research subjects for two years.
The second instance also occurred in 1988. Rushton conducted a survey at the Eaton Centre mall in Toronto, paying 50 whites, 50 blacks, and 50 Asians $5.00 each to answer questions about their sexual habits. For this, he was again formally reprimanded, this time by the University of Western Ontario administration itself, because he had failed to submit the project for approval by the university’s ethics committee, as required for research projects off campus. This was “a serious breach of scholarly procedure,” according to the university’s president, George Pederson. " NY review of Books. 1994 "Pioneer" http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1995/mar/23/pioneer/
It should be noted that the above racial theories are being advanced by white racial writers who demonize blacks as lesser examples of humanity. Could the obsession with black penis size be related to this savage disparagement of blacks? White writer Michael Bradley suggests that penis envy could be a relevant factor is the hate of white racists for blacks. -------------------------------------------------------
Yet another white writer, M. Bradley, in "The Iceman Inheritance", holds that white evolution in cold climates generated smaller penis sizes, compared to Negroes. This smaller penis size generates intense envy, resentment and rage in some white lineages, leading to murderous violence. Some lynchings in the US South may be related to this white penis envy re Negroid [sic] data..
-------------------------
White racist jealously of black potency has long historical roots scholars suggest, with white obsession so intense that black African penises where sometimes preserved and shipped to Europe as curiosities in colonial times.
QUOTE:
"Some histories suggest that European explorers and slave traders sometines even perserved and pickled the penises of some African males, shipping the back to Europe as curiosities. Typically, the size of the African penis was held up as evidence of the "animalistic" and "subhuman" nature of the black race.
In 1954, in his analysis of the underpinnings of bias and racism, Gordon Allport referenced the preoccupation with sex and the black man's penis, suggesting that it was not the physical size of the penis, but the "psychological" size of the penis that was the fascination and preoccupation. In Calvin Hernton's work Sex and Race in America, Hernton describes the history of Southern white women's preoccupation with black men, suggesting that black males took on an iconic sexual persona." --David J. Ley. 2009. Insatiable wives
E------- longated African at work 1..
Feelings of inadequacy haunt white racists, directly and indirectly, among all white social classes, some white writers suggest..
"There is in the psyche of the racist an inordinate disposition for sexual atrocity. He sees in the Negro the essence of his own sexuality, that is. those qualities that he wishes for but fears he does not possess." --Hernton, Calvin 1965. Sex and Racism in America. Grove Press
"This was particularly salient to me when I gave a lecture on environmental racism before an audience of over 400 of North Carolina's "most gifted" high school seniors.. [who thought blacks lagged in some school academic areas] (except for athletic ability and — as many of my white students routinely point out — penis size).. --White college professor in American Philosophical Association newsletter, Spring 2004, vol 103, no 2
WHite racist envy and resentment re black potency is reflected subtly in several Hollywood horror films quote: "the question of penis size is also part and parcel of racist fears: Kong as black rapist, which tells us far more about the castration fears of white racists than about the real endowments of black males." --Reynold Humphries - 2006 - The Hollywood horror film, 1931-1941: madness in a social landscape
Racist architect of the Holocaust, Adolf Hitler's writings reveal an obsessive fear of negro sexual potency even when railing against Jews.. Quote:
"The myth of the over-sized black penis may be contrasted with the turn-of-the-century antisemitic beeif that the large Jewish nose signified a small penis, further truncated by circumcision. Such images raised questions about Jewish masculinity and virility. But.. [the] notion of the Jew as cunning seducer, and occasionally a violent rapist, was a staple of Nazi propaganda. In his passage warning against 'the black-haired Jewish youth' Hitler also manages to arouse fears of lack sexuality when he blames Jews for the introduction into the Rhineland of soldiers from the French African colonies, some of who had affairs with German women that resulted in children of mixed ancestry.
Hitler even claimed that the French toleration of black-white intermarriage and its seeming color blind conception of assimilation was turning France into' an extension of Africa into the heartland of Europe'.. As for hundreds of mixed offspring sired on German women by French African colonial soldiers in the Rhineland during the early postwar years, they were rounded up and sterilized in 1937.." Had there been a significant black population in Germany, they might have conceivably have been sent to gas chambers along with all the Jews who could be apprehended and some of the Gypsies. Nevertheless, the German fixation on Jews clearly did not depend on large numbers: there were only about 1 percent of the population when Hitler came to power." ---George M. Fredrickson. 2003. Racism: A Short History. Princeton University Press. 120-121
White hereditarian scholars show obsession with black sexual endowment in their research QUOTE: "Another god in the racist pantheon Herrnstein and Murray employ as a source is Philippe Rushton, a Canadian psychologist who has received worldwide attention for his racial theories. Rushton is known particularly for his argument that brain size and penis size are inversely proportional.. To prove his contentions about the races, Rushton has conducted research at shopping malls, where he asks men from different racial groups to specify the distance their semen travels during ejaculation. ." --Joe L. Kincheloe 2009. Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined
"The genitalia of black Africans were also deemed noteworthy to the Greek and Roman artists. Within the same art piece, black males are depicted with penises larger than those of white figures, and in others are shown as being erect." --Vincent Sarich, Frank Miele. 2005. Race: The Reality of Human Differences. pg 41
Posts: 5905 | From: The Hammer | Registered: Aug 2008
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quote:Originally posted by cassiterides: The indigenous Arabians i believe are Veddoid, just like India, but they only survive pure-blooded in very small pockets. I believe the darker Arab racial types have a higher degree of Veddid admixture, i don't believe they are pure-blooded Caucasoids who just aquired a darker skin tone through climatic adaptation.
They are proto-Caucasoid or dark Caucasoids and racially non-Negroid. For example the most prominent native maternal marker in the Arabian plateau R0 is the ancestor of the most common European maternal marker H. They are the ancestors of Caucasoids.
Veddoid peopole are far more Negroid in appearance than the average Fulani or Tutsi.
Your system of classification just doesn't work except in your dreams.
(a) Australian (Aborigine) (b) Veddoid or Veddid (i) Gongid (ii) Malid
Hybrid Australoid subraces:
(a) Indo-Melanid (Indid-Veddid intermediate typical of the Dravidian-Caucasoid populations) (b) Kolid (Indo-Melanid subvariety of the Santals, Munda, and other tribes of the northeastern Indian Subcontinent). (c) Tasmanid (Australoid-Negrito admixed)
4. Mongoloid
(a) Palaemongoloid (b) Tungid (c) Sinid (c) Indianid or Amerind (i) Andid (ii) Margid (iii) Lagid (d) Arctid (i) Eskimid (ii) Sibirid
quote:Originally posted by Perahu: Look at South Sudan, without Caucasoid mixed North Sudanese rulers they resort back to their savage Nilotic behavior.
I honesty doubt people like this build Ancient Nubia.
Ancient Nubians were probably more Caucasoid mixed/influenced than them.
Cacasians/ proto-caucasiod?
Can you be more specific. What do you mean by "caucasian"?
From where did "they" come, what is heir history?
What did "these", caucasians look like?
What do you mean by ancient?
And since you are hyped about autosomals, you maybe can explain how gene-mutation occurs.
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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posted
Definition Caucasian = All who were great in history No matter the color
Posts: 2922 | From: World Empire of the Black People | Registered: Jul 2011
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This is Eurocentrism Everything was white that did! The Nok culture The Great Zimbabwe everything! Evidence? Zero! They are thieves! they know what they are doing!
We need protect our history. They are evil and thieves if they reach the power we are *****
Posts: 2922 | From: World Empire of the Black People | Registered: Jul 2011
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quote:Originally posted by cassiterides: The indigenous Arabians i believe are Veddoid, just like India, but they only survive pure-blooded in very small pockets. I believe the darker Arab racial types have a higher degree of Veddid admixture, i don't believe they are pure-blooded Caucasoids who just aquired a darker skin tone through climatic adaptation.
They are proto-Caucasoid or dark Caucasoids and racially non-Negroid. For example the most prominent native maternal marker in the Arabian plateau R0 is the ancestor of the most common European maternal marker H. They are the ancestors of Caucasoids.
Yep, Veddoids are not Negroids but Australoid, but you think this is what caucasoid sprung from? My view on caucasoid origins is the polycentric Coonian evolution: H. Erectus > ? > Heidelberg Man > Neanderthal > Cro-Magnon > Caucasoid.
?lol
quote:Originally posted by cassiterides:
Many Neanderthal dental features are only found in modern Europeans - Bailey, S.E. ''A closer look at Neanderthal postcanine dental morphology: The mandibular dentation''. The Anatomical Record (New Anat.). 269. 2002.
Regardless if you believe in multiregionlism or out of africa, Neanderthals passed some of their traits to modern Europeans. [/qb]
Posts: 22234 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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quote:Originally posted by cassiterides: The indigenous Arabians i believe are Veddoid, just like India, but they only survive pure-blooded in very small pockets. I believe the darker Arab racial types have a higher degree of Veddid admixture, i don't believe they are pure-blooded Caucasoids who just aquired a darker skin tone through climatic adaptation.
They are proto-Caucasoid or dark Caucasoids and racially non-Negroid. For example the most prominent native maternal marker in the Arabian plateau R0 is the ancestor of the most common European maternal marker H. They are the ancestors of Caucasoids.
Veddoid peopole are far more Negroid in appearance than the average Fulani or Tutsi.
Your system of classification just doesn't work except in your dreams.
(a) Australian (Aborigine) (b) Veddoid or Veddid (i) Gongid (ii) Malid
Hybrid Australoid subraces:
(a) Indo-Melanid (Indid-Veddid intermediate typical of the Dravidian-Caucasoid populations) (b) Kolid (Indo-Melanid subvariety of the Santals, Munda, and other tribes of the northeastern Indian Subcontinent). (c) Tasmanid (Australoid-Negrito admixed)
4. Mongoloid
(a) Palaemongoloid (b) Tungid (c) Sinid (c) Indianid or Amerind (i) Andid (ii) Margid (iii) Lagid (d) Arctid (i) Eskimid (ii) Sibirid
Greater variability [is] assigned to "Caucasoid" types. This type may have complexions ranging from very fair to very dark, and wide ranges of all other characteristics, often apart from "admixture." However, it is often implied (if not directly suggested) that other types do not have such variability [unless due to admixture].
"[L]abeling" of characteristics. Thus, as an example, there is the implication that narrow noses are "Caucasoid."
[I]nconsistency of results and evidence. The unwarranted assignment of greater value to certain results and evidence while downplaying that which does not agreee.
Evidence shows that the structure of the nose, both bony and soft tissue, may undergo radical changes to adapt to the environment (Molnar, 1991). Thus, nose shape would give little evidence of genetic relationship. [Inuit], American Indians, Northern Chinese, etc., all have narrow noses but show little other evidence of gene flow with Europeans. Indeed, genetic studies have shown that the belief that straight, narrow noses among Nilotic peoples as due to migrations from Europe or Asia is not correct. (Molnar, Stephen, Human Variation, New York, 1991)
Probably, light-colored eyes and hair are among the rarest prominent external traits among the human species. They are found mostly in Europe, and aside from albinos, are hardly found at all outside of Europe, ... populations that have resided for long periods in cold climates like the Altaic peoples of Siberia, the northern Chinese, the [Inuit] and Native peoples of Canada do not possess such traits. Thus, light hair (including light brown and red hair) and light eyes (blue, green, etc.) might be seen as very strong genetic traits, and their complete or near complete absence among a group as evidence of minimal genetic relationship. ... However, from the Eurocentric perspective, the color of skin, eyes, hair, etc., is given little importance in anthropological studies. This is not justified, ...
In concluding, we can illustrate the problem in this way using the old three race theory still commonly used by geneticists and forensic anthropologists:
Let A = Africoid, C = Caucasoid, M = Mongoloid; and the monotypic trait types so that in pure form:
A = A monotypic traits M = M monotypic traits C = C monotypic traits;
In addition, there are variants to the above traits that are similar to the monotype yet significantly different. Let's label these types:
And also there are variants that don't quite fit any of these patterns (at least not from the non-Eurocentric perspective) such as many South Asians, Australians, etc. For the sake of convenience lets say there are four such types (there are probably more):
D type, E type, F type, G type;
Now, we will take the Eurocentric position and classify all types into the original three monotypic groups:
A does not = A2, A3, A4, M, M2, M3, M4, C, C2, C3, ,C4, D, E, F or G types
M does not = A, A2, A3, A4, M2, M3, M4, C, C2, C3, ,C4, D, E, F or G types
However,
C = A2, A3, A4, M2, M3, M4, C, C2, C3, C4, D, E, F and G types
Armed with such a contrived system, the Eurocentric, hyperdiffusionists can argue just about anything they please without regard to the true facts.
Posts: 6546 | From: japan | Registered: Feb 2009
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Where are those bible verses that "prove" Cushites originated in Arabia and Mesopotamia? LOL @ cassite, he has been ducking and dodging this simple question, yet claims to be a student of anthropology. Where is your source that disconnects Cush from SUB-SAHARA AFRICA? When did your "caucasoid" forefathers name the Arabian penisula the "Middle East"? He wont answer these questions because he knows he will contradict himself and fall even deeper into the abyss his @$$ is already in. You can play the "oid" games all day which is what you want to do. We can easily settle this "debate" by identifying the C-U-S-H-I-T-E-S (founders of MANY great civilizations). Its a sad day when a "white" man claims the children of Cush are his ancestors. When you brought your @$$ down into the MOTHERLAND, did you in fact find people living in huts with no running water? My gut feeling tells me you found diamonds, gold, things your forefathers never built, and civilizations (that you had NO KNOWLEDGE OF) that were head and shoulders above your @$$!! Yea, no wonder you cant help but to stake some type of claim on AFRICAN soil. Couldnt erase that much history, so the next best thing was to revise it and call it your own!
Posts: 30 | Registered: Dec 2011
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Here is some talk about drainage and water supply systems in early africa etc..
How did ancient black Africa handle their sewage and excretory wastes? Did they have any sewage systems?
Badu Kwesi quote-
quote: The Kingdom of Kush had sewer systems such as these;
Toilets connected by sewers from Christian Nubia;
Kilwa in East Africa also had indoor toilets during the middle ages. Gao, a major city of the Mali and Songhai Empires was full of flourishing homes with indoor toilets.
Moreover, there’s some astute research by Sophie Berthier in her work; “ Recherches Archéologiques Sur la Capitale de L'empire de Ghana: Étude D'un Secteur D'habitat À Koumbi Saleh, Mauritanie : Campagnes II-III-IV-V, (1975-1976)-(1980-1981)” that discusses the laterines used in the Ghana Empire.
Another scholar, Susan Keech Mcintosh, has shed light on the bathrooms and toilets of Djenne-Djenno which were connected by channels of sewers.
Thomas Edward Bowdich paid a visit to the Ashanti Empire in 1819, and he was impressed by the flush toilet system on the second floor of this building for example.
You should check Isaac Samuel’s work online. He covers a lot about Africa and what I love about him is that he always backs his work with reliable sources.
quote: The Songhai and Ashanti had 2 story houses with toilets that they flushed with hot water or hot rocks and the ancient city of Gao in modern day Mali had a palace which had a bathroom with a drainage system so your comment is ignorant and stupid.
posted
Did ancient African societies have sewage systems similar to that of Rome? Harold Zwanepol quote-
quote: While ancient Rome is exceptional in its early development of sewers, it had to make due with clay and lead for work materials. The Egyptians on the other hand used a system of copper pipes to plumb their cities. Did you know the pyramids had toilets?
Egyptian drainage canal in the world’s earliest planned city Kahun, Egypt 2500 BC… (more)
posted
Did ancient African societies have sewage systems similar to that of Rome?
Bruh Bag quote-
quote: Believe it or not, yes they did!
Various Edo (Nigeria) cities features systems of sunken impliviums to carry away rainwater in cases of floods or storms, these turned into a sewage systems of sorts.
Cities in the Mali Empire also built extensive plumbing systems.
And although not a widespread system, some houses in Kumasi in the Ashanti Empire(Ghana) had toilets flushed with buckets of boiling water.
Patrick Gabriel quote-
quote: Yes Africans had sewer systems first,that’s where the Romans gotten the concept from
quote:Originally posted by Firewall: Did ancient African societies have sewage systems similar to that of Rome?
Bruh Bag quote-
quote: Believe it or not, yes they did!
Various Edo (Nigeria) cities features systems of sunken impliviums to carry away rainwater in cases of floods or storms, these turned into a sewage systems of sorts.
Cities in the Mali Empire also built extensive plumbing systems.
And although not a widespread system, some houses in Kumasi in the Ashanti Empire(Ghana) had toilets flushed with buckets of boiling water.
Patrick Gabriel quote-
quote: Yes Africans had sewer systems first,that’s where the Romans gotten the concept from
Love this info! I learn something new everday!
And it only makes sense, the irrigation systems of the nile valley would obviously lead to sewage systems it's a natural progression of ideas.
-------------------- It's not my burden to disabuse the ignorant of their wrong opinions Posts: 2699 | From: New York | Registered: Jun 2015
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By the way to make clear the first sewage system was at Mesopotamia,but the ancient egyptians had them before rome as well.
Posts: 2560 | From: Somewhere | Registered: May 2012
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quote:Originally posted by Firewall: By the way to make clear the first sewage system was at Mesopotamia,but the ancient egyptians had them before rome as well.
Got you..
-------------------- It's not my burden to disabuse the ignorant of their wrong opinions Posts: 2699 | From: New York | Registered: Jun 2015
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-------------------- It's not my burden to disabuse the ignorant of their wrong opinions Posts: 2699 | From: New York | Registered: Jun 2015
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quote: Infrastructure such as road transport and communication throughout the empire was maintained via a network of well-kept roads from the Ashanti mainland to the Niger river and other trade cities.[50][51] English visitors to Kumasi in the 19th century, noted the division of the capital into 77 wards with 27 main streets; one of which was 100 yards wide. Many houses especially those near the king's stone palace were two story buildings embodied with indoor plumbing in the form of toilets that were flushed with gallons of boiling water.[60] Bowdich revealed in his 1817 account that all streets of Kumasi were named.[61][62] Stationed at various points of Ashanti roads were the Nkwansrafo or road wardens who served as the highway police; checking the movement of traders and strangers on all roads. They were also responsible for scouting and were charged with the collection of tolls from traders.[63] The Ashanti Empire also built bridges across water bodies for transport. Asantehene Kwaku Dua ordered his engineers to build proper bridges above streams in the Metropolitan cities of Ashanti. Thomas Freeman, who visited the empire in the 19th century, described the construction as: Some stout, forked sticks or posts are driven in the centre of the stream at convenient distances, across which are placed some strong beams, fastened to the posts with withes, from the numerous climbing plants on every hand. On these bearers are placed long stout poles which are covered with earth from fourth to six inches thick.... — Freeman.
Wikipedia
isaac Samuel A thread on medieval and early modern African lavatories/baths/latrines
Toilets of Kumasi and asante empire cities (18th-19th century) Often found on top floor (elites) and outdoor (commoners) They were separate rooms built with fired clay and wood, flushed with boiling water; discharging sewage
isaac Samuel Jenne-jenno (250BC-1400AD) Found in several of the houses the bath and/or latrine were found on the ground floor and through 3m long drainage/sewage channels were connected to 4.5m deep pits Dated to phase vi (900-1400ad) associated with the resurgence of Ghana and rise of mali https://twitter.com/rhaplord/status/1329382983502082048/photo/1
Toilets of Kumbi saleh, tegdaust and the cities of the Ghana empire (8th-13th cent) The latrines were located on the lower floors built with drystone with paved floors and small rectangular holes in slab built over deep cesspools (translation of bethier's excavations at kumbi) https://pbs.twimg.com/media/EnLsT59XUAEh1UD?format=webp&name=small
Gao (9th-12th centh) Bathrooms were built inside several houses excavated at the Old city They were beautifully plastered, and had a drainage pipe connected to an outdoor pit (Similar design to jenne, kumbi saleh, etc of which I don't hv pictures yet but will describe) https://pbs.twimg.com/media/EnLpKwmW4AE0ZUq?format=webp&name=360x360
quote: Like other aspects of the culture of Africa, the architecture of Africa is exceptionally diverse. Throughout the history of Africa, Africans have developed their own local architectural traditions. In some cases, broader regional styles can be identified, such as the Sudano-Sahelian architecture of West Africa. A common theme in traditional African architecture is the use of fractal scaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.[1] African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries, according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities. African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud, mudbrick, rammed earth, and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North Africa for stone and rammed earth, the Horn of Africa for stone and mortar, West Africa for mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.
Sudano-Sahelian architecture
quote: Sudano-Sahelian architecture refers to a range of similar indigenous architectural styles common to the African peoples of the Sahel and Sudanian grassland (geographical) regions of West Africa, south of the Sahara, but north of the fertile forest regions of the coast. This style is characterized by the use of mudbricks and adobe plaster, with large wooden-log support beams that jut out from the wall face for large buildings such as mosques or palaces. These beams also act as scaffolding for reworking, which is done at regular intervals, and involves the local community.
Historical background
quote: Large proto-urban walled stone settlements, likely built by Mande-speaking Soninke peoples date from around 2,500 BC at Dhar Tichitt and nearby sites in southeastern Mauritania.[2][3] Other early examples of Sudano-Sahelian style are probably from Dia around 600 BC[4] and Jenné-Jeno around 250 BC, both in Mali, where the first evidence of permanent mudbrick architecture in the region is found, including residences and a large city wall.[5] The first Great Mosque of Djenné (built around 1200 to 1330[6]) in modern Mali, according to traditional accounts, was constructed on the site of an older pre-Islamic palace by the city's king.[7] Starting in the 9th century AD, Muslim merchants came to play a vital role in the western Sahel region through trans-Saharan trade networks.[8] The earliest mosques discovered in sub-Saharan Africa are at Kumbi Saleh (in present-day southern Mauritania), the former capital of the Ghana Empire.[9] Here, a mosque has been discovered which consisted of a courtyard, a prayer hall, and a square minaret, built in dry stone covered in red mud used as plaster. On both the exterior and interior of the mosque, this plaster was painted with floral, geometric, and epigraphic motifs. A similar stone mosque from the same period has been found at Awdaghust.[10] Both mosques are dated generally between the 9th and 14th centuries. The mosque of Kumbi Saleh appears to have gone through multiple construction phases from the 10th century to the early 14th century.[10] At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 mosques (as described by Al-Bakri), one centered on Friday prayer.[11] The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was 66 feet long, 42 feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.[12] A variety of possible influences on this architecture have been suggested. North African and Andalusi architecture to the north may have been one of these,[14] with the existence of square minarets possibly reflecting the influence of the Great Mosque of Kairouan.[8] As Islamization progressed across the region, more variations developed in mosque architecture, including the adoption of traditional local forms not previously associated with Islamic architecture.[15] Under Songhai influence, minarets took on a more pyramidal appearance and became stepped or tiered on three levels, as exemplified by the tower of the mosque–tomb of Askia al-Hajj Muhammad in Gao (present-day Mali). In Timbuktu, the Sankoré Mosque (established in the 14th-15th centuries[16] and rebuilt in the 16th century, with later additions[17]), had a tapering minaret and a prayer hall with rows of arches.[15] The presence of tapering minarets may also reflect cultural contacts with M'zab region to the north,[15] while decoration found at Timbuktu may reflect contacts with Berber communities in what is now Mauritania.[18] More local or indigenous pagan cultures may have also been an influence in the later Islamic architecture of the region.[14]
General
quote: While the architecture of this region shares a certain style, a wide variety of materials and local styles are evident across this wide geographic range.[8][23] In the more arid western Sahara and northern Sahel regions, stone predominates as a building material and is often associated with Berber cultures. In the southern Sahel and savannah regions mudbrick and rammed earth are the main material and is now associated with the most monumental examples of West African Islamic architecture. In some places, like Timbuktu and Oualata, both building materials are used together, with stone constructions either covered or bound with a mud plaster.[24] In the earthen architecture of the region, scholar Andrew Petersen distinguishes two general styles: a "western" style that may have its roots in Djenné (present-day Mali), and an "eastern" style associated with Hausa architecture that may have its roots in Kano (present-day Nigeria).[19] The eastern or Hausa style is generally more plain on the exterior of buildings, but is characterized by diverse interior decoration and the much greater use of wood.[19] Mosques often have prayer halls with pillars supporting flat or slightly domed roofs of wood and mud.[15][25] An exceptional example is the 19th-century Great Mosque of Zaria (present-day Nigeria), which has parabolic arches and a roof of shallow domes.[15][26] The western or "Sudan" style is characterized by more elaborate and decorated exterior façades whose compositions emphasize verticality. They have tapering buttresses with cone-shaped summits, mosques have a large tower over the mihrab, and wooden stakes (toron) are often embedded in the walls – used for scaffolding but possibly also for some symbolic purpose.[19]
Niani, Guinea History
quote: Niani eshte is often considered one of the ancient capitals of the Mali Empire. Some scholars believe that the village became the capital in the early 12th century after the former capital of Dioliba was abandoned.[1] Niani is mentioned by the 16th-century traveler Leo Africanus. While some scholars believe that Kangaba was one of the capitals of the empire, others believe that Niani remained continuously the capital through the 14th to 16th centuries.
quote: The emperor Musa I of Mali employed the Andalusian architect Ishak al-Tuedjin to build an audience chamber at Niani. It was "square, surmounted by a cupola, which he covered with plaster and decorated with arabesques in dazzling colours." 14th-century North African historian Ibn Khaldun described it as an "admirable monument".[2]: 60
quote: In the 1920s, archaeological excavations were carried out at Niani by Vidal and Gaillard which first identified the site. In 1965 and 1968, Guinean-Polish archaeological missions were carried out. These excavations revealed that the area around Niani was once densely populated.[1] Archaeologists have discovered that these dwellings were widely dispersed; around the royal town, there was a host of hamlets or villages for various trade clans: smiths, fishermen and so on.[2]: 145 As a result of archaeological studies, the Arab quarter and royal town in Niani have been identified, specifically the foundations of stone houses, the mihrab of a mosque and the walls around the royal town. Al-Umari wrote that the buildings were made of bricks of beaten earth and that the "ceilings are made of beams and reeds. They are mostly in the shape of a cupola [conical] or a camel's hump, like vaulted arches. The floors of the houses are of earth mixed with sand ... The king has a group of palaces surrounded by a circular wall." Due to Niani's latitude, such buildings required constant repair and restoration.[2]: 165
Wikipedia
Posts: 2560 | From: Somewhere | Registered: May 2012
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posted
why are you reviving a 2012 racist thread title ?
Are we expected to find out about African civilization by seeking out anti-African polemics?
Posts: 42918 | From: , | Registered: Jan 2010
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