Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa Jason A. Hodgson, 2014 Connie J. Mulligan,Ali Al-Meeri, Ryan L. Raaum mail
Abstract
Genetic studies have identified substantial non-African admixture in the Horn of Africa (HOA). In the most recent genomic studies, this non-African ancestry has been attributed to admixture with Middle Eastern populations during the last few thousand years. However, mitochondrial and Y chromosome data are suggestive of earlier episodes of admixture. To investigate this further, we generated new genome-wide SNP data for a Yemeni population sample and merged these new data with published genome-wide genetic data from the HOA and a broad selection of surrounding populations. We used multidimensional scaling and ADMIXTURE methods in an exploratory data analysis to develop hypotheses on admixture and population structure in HOA populations. These analyses suggested that there might be distinct, differentiated African and non-African ancestries in the HOA. After partitioning the SNP data into African and non-African origin chromosome segments, we found support for a distinct African (Ethiopic) ancestry and a distinct non-African (Ethio-Somali) ancestry in HOA populations. The African Ethiopic ancestry is tightly restricted to HOA populations and likely represents an autochthonous HOA population. The non-African ancestry in the HOA, which is primarily attributed to a novel Ethio-Somali inferred ancestry component, is significantly differentiated from all neighboring non-African ancestries in North Africa, the Levant, and Arabia. The Ethio-Somali ancestry is found in all admixed HOA ethnic groups, shows little inter-individual variance within these ethnic groups, is estimated to have diverged from all other non-African ancestries by at least 23 ka, and does not carry the unique Arabian lactase persistence allele that arose about 4 ka. Taking into account published mitochondrial, Y chromosome, paleoclimate, and archaeological data, we find that the time of the Ethio-Somali back-to-Africa migration is most likely pre-agricultural.
Author Summary
The Horn of Africa (HOA) occupies a central place in our understanding of modern human origins. This region is the location of the earliest known modern human fossils, a possible source for the out-of-Africa migration, and one of the most genetically and linguistically diverse regions of the world. Numerous genetic studies over the last decades have identified substantial non-African ancestry in populations in this region. Because there is archaeological, historical, and linguistic evidence for contact with non-African populations beginning about 3,000 years ago, it has often been assumed that the non-African ancestry in HOA populations dates to this time. In this work, we find that the genetic composition of non-African ancestry in the HOA is distinct from the genetic composition of current populations in North Africa and the Middle East. With these data, we demonstrate that most non-African ancestry in the HOA cannot be the result of admixture within the last few thousand years, and that the majority of admixture probably occurred prior to the advent of agriculture. These results contribute to a growing body of work showing that prehistoric hunter-gatherer populations were much more dynamic than usually assumed.
Introduction
The timing and extent of migration and admixture are questions that are central to the entire scope of human evolutionary history from the origin of our species to the present day. The most important event underlying human population structure is the origin of anatomically modern humans in Africa and their subsequent migration around the globe [1]–[3]. Following the initial out-of-Africa migration, the rate of migration between sub-Saharan Africa and the rest of the Old World was low throughout prehistory, but not absent; there is statistically significant evidence for a deep history of intercontinental migration [4]–[7]. Beginning around 11 ka (thousand years ago), the switch to reliance on domesticated plants and animals is associated with major population and language expansions from multiple centers of domestication around the world [8]–[10]. Finally, migration and admixture accelerated during the last few thousand years with increasing international trade, including the trade in slaves and the transplantation and shuffling of populations in the colonial era, culminating in the modern era of high international migration.
Populations in the Horn of Africa (HOA: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia) have substantial non-African ancestry [11]–[15]. The most recent genomic studies estimate 30–50% non-African ancestry in the Cushitic and Semitic speaking populations of the HOA resulting primarily from admixture around 3 ka [16], [17]. This timeframe corresponds to the estimated time of origin of the Ethiosemitic languages [18] and there are some carved inscriptions in South Arabian scripts associated with temple ruins and ritual items in South Arabian styles dated to the early first millennium BCE in the north Ethiopian highlands [19]–[23]. These linguistic and archaeological connections have been cited in the recent population genomic studies to support a hypothesis of high levels of non-African migration into the HOA around 3 ka.
However, more recent archaeological research shows that non-African influences in the HOA were limited and transient. Of the early first millennium BCE inscriptions in non-African scripts complete enough to identify a language, only a small proportion are written in a non-African (South Arabian) language - the majority are written in indigenous proto-Ge'ez [24]. In the HOA, architecture with non-African (primarily South Arabian) elements is entirely monumental or ritual [25] and ritual items with exclusively non-African elements are rare [26]. There are few to no indications of non-African material culture in everyday objects: the ceramics and lithics found outside of the ritual context are almost entirely indigenous with clear local precedents [24], [25], [27]. While earlier scholarship conceived of a South Arabian origin D'MT polity with sovereignty over much of the northern HOA, it is now clear that this polity, if it ever existed at all as an integrated state [24], was geographically restricted to the regions around Yeha and Aksum in what is now the Tigray region of Ethiopia [25]. Artifacts with non-African features are effectively absent in the material culture (ritual or otherwise) of contemporaneous populations in the Eritrean highlands on the Asmara plateau (the “Ancient Ona”) [25], [28], [29]. Prior to the first millennium BC, the archaeology of the HOA is less well studied, but what is available shows no substantial non-African material culture beyond trade relations [25]. Taken all together, the archaeological data could be consistent with limited non-African (primarily South Arabian) migration into the north Ethiopian highlands at the outset of the first millennium BCE, but cannot support large-scale population movements from any foreign population.
Archaeological data indicate trade between the HOA and Arabia by at least 8 ka [30], [31] and genetic analyses of mitochondrial and Y chromosome data suggest much earlier migrations into the HOA. Mitochondrial data are suggestive of as many as three waves of prehistoric non-African migration into the HOA. First, HOA populations carry several unique M1 lineages of the otherwise South and East Asian mitochondrial haplogroup M [13], [32]–[34]. Many of these HOA M1 lineages have deep roots, diverging from M1 representatives elsewhere 20–30 ka [34]–[36]. Second, representatives of N1a and N2a in the HOA diverged from their most closely related haplotypes in the Middle East and the Caucasus 15–20 ka [37]. Third, in the Eurasian mitochondrial HV1 and R0a lineages there are several sub-haplogroups (HV1a3, HV1b1, R0a2b, R0a2g) that are found in both the HOA and the Arabian Peninsula. Within these shared sub-haplogroup lineages, the HOA and Arabian haplotypes are distinct, suggesting that the migration that brought these lineages into the HOA happened soon after the sub-haplogroups began to diversify at 6–10 ka [38], [39].
Y chromosome data are also suggestive of at least two episodes of non-African migration into the HOA prior to 3 ka. First, HOA populations carry E-M78 Y chromosomes at high frequencies [40], [41]. E-M78 originated in northeastern Africa around 19 ka with a descendant lineage (E-V32) unique to the HOA that arrived by at least 6 ka [41]. Because northern African populations in this timeframe are inferred to have substantial non-African ancestry [42], [43], the expansion south of E-M78 could have introduced non-African ancestry into the HOA prior to 6 ka. Second, some HOA populations carry moderate to high frequencies of T-M70 (previously K2-M70) Y chromosomes [44]–[46]. The T haplogroup originated in the area of the Levant approximately 21 ka and the T-M70 sub-haplogroup was present in northeast Africa by at least 14 ka, possibly arriving in the HOA as early as 5 ka [44], [45], [47].
In order to investigate the discrepancy among the archaeological, historical, mitochondrial, Y chromosome, and genome-wide data for recent vs. more ancient evidence of admixture in the HOA, we generated new genome-wide SNP data for a Yemeni sample and analyzed these new data with publicly available data [16], [43], [48]–[51]. Our objectives were to verify the presence of admixture in the HOA, determine the affinities of any HOA non-African ancestry, and evaluate the number of distinct admixture episodes and their timing.
Results and Discussion
For these analyses, we generated new genome-wide SNP data using the Illumina 370K array from 61 Yemenis, chosen to represent all geographic regions of the country. These new data were merged with published data from the HOA [16], the Middle East [48], North Africa [43], Qatar [50], southern Africa [51], west Africa [49], the HapMap3 project [52], and the Human Genome Diversity Project [53]. After reduction to SNPs shared across all source datasets and quality control, the main merged dataset included 2,194 individuals from 81 populations for 16,766 SNPs (Table S1).
Horn of Africa populations in the regional genetic landscape
We first investigated the position and dispersion of HOA populations in the genetic landscape in a multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) analysis of pairwise identity by state (IBS). Consistent with prior analyses of global genome-wide genetic variation [3], [53], [54], the first dimension of the IBS MDS analysis separates sub-Saharan Africans from non-Africans (Figure 1A). The HOA samples are broadly dispersed between the main sub-Saharan Africa cluster and the non-African populations and several sub-clusters of HOA samples are apparent. To see the specific distribution of all of the included HOA samples, we plotted the HOA samples in isolation (Figure 1B). While we include many more African and non-African population samples than prior analysis of these HOA data, our results in the MDS analysis for the HOA samples are not qualitatively different than those of Pagani et al. [16], who showed that the different HOA clusters correspond to linguistic groups: the Gumuz are Nilotic-speaking, the Ari and Wolayta are Omotic-speaking, and the rest speak Cushitic or Semitic languages. The dispersion of HOA samples between the sub-Saharan and non-African clusters is suggestive of admixture between African and non-African ancestors [55], [56].
Non-African ancestry in the HOA
The ADMIXTURE-derived hypothesis that non-African ancestry in the HOA derives from admixture with a population or populations with high levels of the Arabian and Maghrebi IACs and some of the Eurasian IAC (hypothesis 2A above) suggests that HOA populations should have higher levels of shared gene identity with populations with higher proportions of those ancestries. To evaluate this prediction, we examined the relationship between shared gene identity and the ADMIXTURE-estimated proportion of the Arabian, Eurasian, and Maghrebi IACs in MENA population samples for each of the non-African ancestry partitions of the admixed HOA populations using varying intercepts linear models. Only the Maghrebi IAC analysis shows the expected relationship: shared gene identity between HOA and MENA populations increases as the proportion of Maghrebi ancestry increases (Figure 4A). Contrary to expectations, shared gene identity decreases between HOA populations and MENA populations as the proportion of the Arabian IAC (Figure 4B) and the Eurasian IAC (Figure 4C) increases.
Timing of non-African admixture in the HOA
We used two methods that model the pattern of linkage disequilibrium (LD) expected to result from admixture to estimate the date of admixture for all study populations in which we found statistically significant signals of admixture: ROLLOFF [62], [70] and ALDER [63]. Our estimates are broadly compatible with the dates previously calculated for these same population samples [16], [17]. Using the HapMap YRI (Yoruba) and CEU (Utah residents with Northern and Western European ancestry) as reference populations, Pagani et al. [16] calculated ROLLOFF admixture dates ranging between 2,000 and 3,000 years ago. Pickrell et al. [17] calculated ALDER admixture date estimates for these populations between about 2,500 and 3,500 years ago, with some experiencing secondary admixture between 100 and 300 years ago. Across the entire set of reference populations that we used, our ROLLOFF estimates range from 2,200 to 4,700 years ago, and our single-admixture ALDER estimates are somewhat younger, ranging from 1,000 to 4,300 years ago (Table 1). Following Pickrell et al. [17], we compared the fit of single and dual admixture histories from ALDER in HOA populations and found, in agreement with their results, strong evidence for two admixture events in the Amhara and Oromo (Table 1).
Relationship to the North African back-to-Africa migration
Like the Ethio-Somali, the Maghrebi IAC in North African populations derives from a early back-to-Africa migration [34], [43], [61], [99]–[102]. Studies of North African populations reveal a complex layered history of admixture in North Africa, with an inferred pre-Last Glacial Maximum settlement of North Africa by a non-African population followed by gene flow from European, Middle Eastern, and sub-Saharan African populations dating from the end of the LGM to the recent past [43], [103]–[105].
A single prehistoric migration of both the Maghrebi and the Ethio-Somali back into Africa is the most parsimonious hypothesis. That is, a common ancestral population migrated into northeast Africa through the Sinai and then split into two, with one branch continuing west across North Africa and the other heading south into the HOA. For the Ethio-Somali, the lowest FST value from the ADMIXTURE estimated ancestral allele frequencies is with the Maghrebi (Text S1), which is consistent with a common origin hypothesis. In contrast, the Maghrebi component has lower FST values with Arabian, European, and Eurasian ancestral populations than with the Ethio-Somali, which suggests that the Maghrebi diverged most recently from those populations, and might indicate separate back-to-Africa migrations for the Ethio-Somali and the Maghrebi. Unfortunately, the FST estimates alone are not robust enough to distinguish between single or separate back-to-Africa migrations. While the FST estimates for the ancestral populations are, in theory, free of confounding admixture, they derive from a simplified model of population history that is known to be inaccurate (simultaneous divergence) and are all assumed to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium [57], [106]. As a result, fine-scale differences in pairwise FST among ancestral populations should be interpreted with care.
Mitochondrial M1 and U6 lineages – sub-clades of mitochondrial haplogroups that are otherwise found only in Eurasian populations – are found both in North Africa and the HOA [34]. U6 has its highest frequencies and diversity in Northwest Africa and M1 has its highest frequencies and diversity in the HOA. The differing representation of deeply diverging M1 and U6 mitochondrial lineages in North Africa and the HOA shows that these regions have exchanged few female migrants since approximately 20 ka [36]. While these mitochondrial data further support our hypothesis that most of the non-African ancestry in the HOA has an ancient origin, we still cannot distinguish between single or separate migrations of the Maghrebi and Ethio-Somali back-to-Africa. If we could identify the geographical origins of both M1 and U6 and if these lineages originated in the same area, then a common migration hypothesis would seem more likely. The geographical origin of a mitochondrial clade is usually inferred from the presence of diverse early branching lineages within a region. To date, no region has been identified with a diversity of early branching lineages of either M1 or U6. Given the exclusively Eurasian distribution of the larger M and U haplogroups, it is generally inferred that M1 and U6 originated outside of Africa [34], [35], [100] but since all other early branches of M1 and U6 appear to have gone extinct, it is not possible to specify their location of origin. Most recently, Pennarun and colleagues [36] found that sub-lineages within U6 began diversifying in North Africa about 10,000 years before M1 sub-lineages began diversifying in the HOA (~30 ka vs. ~20 ka). This difference in coalescence times might be taken as evidence for separate migrations, but could also be explained by smaller population sizes in the HOA ancestors between 30 and 20 ka following a common migration.
Summary and implications
We find that most of the non-African ancestry in the HOA can be assigned to a distinct non-African origin Ethio-Somali ancestry component, which is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic and Semitic speaking HOA populations (Table 2, Figure 2). In addition to verifying that most HOA populations have substantial non-African ancestry, which is not controversial [11]–[14], [16], we argue that the non-African origin Ethio-Somali ancestry in the HOA is most likely pre-agricultural. In combination with the genomic evidence for a pre-agricultural back-to-Africa migration into North Africa [43], [61] and inference of pre-agricultural migrations in and out-of-Africa from mitochondrial and Y chromosome data [13], [32]–[37], [47], [99]–[102], these results contribute to a growing body of evidence for migrations of human populations in and out of Africa throughout prehistory [5]–[7] and suggests that human hunter-gatherer populations were much more dynamic than commonly assumed.
We close with a provisional linguistic hypothesis. The proto-Afro-Asiatic speakers are thought to have lived either in the area of the Levant or in east/northeast Africa [8], [107], [108]. Proponents of the Levantine origin of Afro-Asiatic tie the dispersal and differentiation of this language group to the development of agriculture in the Levant beginning around 12 ka [8], [109], [110]. In the African-origins model, the original diversification of the Afro-Asiatic languages is pre-agricultural, with the source population living in the central Nile valley, the African Red Sea hills, or the HOA [108], [111]. In this model, later diversification and expansion within particular Afro-Asiatic language groups may be associated with agricultural expansions and transmissions, but the deep diversification of the group is pre-agricultural. We hypothesize that a population with substantial Ethio-Somali ancestry could be the proto-Afro-Asiatic speakers. A later migration of a subset of this population back to the Levant before 6 ka would account for a Levantine origin of the Semitic languages [18] and the relatively even distribution of around 7% Ethio-Somali ancestry in all sampled Levantine populations (Table S6). Later migration from Arabia into the HOA beginning around 3 ka would explain the origin of the Ethiosemitic languages at this time [18], the presence of greater Arabian and Eurasian ancestry in the Semitic speaking populations of the HOA (Table 2, S6), and ROLLOFF/ALDER estimates of admixture in HOA populations between 1–5 ka (Table 1).
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This paper is pure conjecture. The authors data make it clear that the admixture was only 2000 years old, but the authors attempt to claim the admixture dates back 10-20kya.
The South Arabians and HOA populations were basically the same so the whole foundation of the paper can be falsified on archaeological and historical data, which show the supremacy of the HOA on both sides of the Red Sea, only after the Nubians had first established civilization in the area.
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Paper is a waste of time. Same ole same ole. All the paper shows is there are similar DNA material on both sides of the Red Sea which is a well known fact. Only Treemix analysis(or similar) for SNPs can determine direction or Haplotype diversity for HGs can determine origin. Niether were done.
This is not worth discussing.
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This is a very bad way to use the Admixture software (I wont enumerate all the reasons here in this post, they are multiple) and does make a lot of baseless hypothesis and unproven conjecture. I won't discuss every conjecture but consider this part of the text:
quote:This Ethio-Somali IAC is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic speaking Somali populations and at high frequencies in neighboring Cushitic and Semitic speaking Afar, Amhara, Oromo, and Tygray populations. This IAC was not identified in the source study for the HOA SNP data [16], but Tishkoff and colleagues [59], in an analysis of an independent autosomal microsatellite dataset, did recover an equivalent IAC (calling it ‘‘Cushitic’’). While this Ethio-Somali IAC is found primarily in Africa, it has clear non-African affinities (Text S1).
Basically, he admits his non-African Ethio-Somali IAC was not discovered in the source study he used for the HOA SNP data, but then he lie to us !
He says "but Tishkoff and colleagues" "did revover an equivalent IAC (calling it "Cushitic"). Then proceed to tell us that this IAC has clear non-African affinities. This is a lie because in the Tishkoff study the Cushitic IAC had clear African affinities:
From the Tiskhoff study in question supp.Mat (The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans.):
Clearly the Cushitic AAC/IAC identified in the Tishkoff study had a clear African affinity.
In another line of analysis, "the source study for the HOA SNP data [16]" is the Pagani study called "Ethiopian Genetic Diversity Reveals Linguistic Stratification and Complex Influences on the Ethiopian Gene Pool" beside not showing this non African IAC as he admits, it suffers from a high level of SNP Ascertainment Bias in favor of non-African affiliations. As admitted in the Pagani study:
quote:The Semitic-Cushitic and North African populations showed the highest values of heterozygosity worldwide, which may reflect a combination of SNP ascertainment bias and the mixture of African and non-African components in these populations.
Usually African populations have a much higher level of heterozygosity than European or North African population. The effect of SNP ascertainment bias is a consequence of the SNP discovery process where a sub-set of European population are used. This translate in bias PCA analysis and Admixture software proportion of admixture (in favor of Eurasian SNPs/clusters). This SNP ascertainment bias is common in many SNP microarray. In general, all such analysis based on a pre-selected group of SNPs/microarray must always take this SNP ascertainment bias in consideration when analyzing population admixture and affiliation. Hopefully, in the future full genome analysis could end this bias toward non-African and Eurasian SNPs. Still those "admixture" and PCAs analysis have their use, but everything must be put in perspective and any bias taken into consideration. So when you see such admixture software analysis with all the K colors always consider this.
In my opinion, there always is some ancient and more recent admixture between populations (in both directions) but here the ancient non-African contribution to HOA is greatly over-estimated (you can even see the blue part of the Nilo-Saharan component being engulfed by this so-called non-African component). It simply reflect structuring among African population in Horn Africa on one part and mostly "recent" bi-directional relationship between HOA and Eurasian populations (often confused in admixture software analysis when any K is taken as valid). The Tishkoff Cushitic IAC confusion(lie) by the author points to that direction as does other previous studies.
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Reread the passage and tells us where he lies.
"This Ethio-Somali IAC is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic speaking Somali populations and at high frequencies in neighboring Cushitic and Semitic speaking Afar, Amhara, Oromo, and Tygray populations. This IAC was not identified in the source study for the HOA SNP data [16], but Tishkoff and colleagues [59], in an analysis of an independent autosomal microsatellite dataset, did recover an equivalent IAC (calling it ‘‘Cushitic’’). While this Ethio-Somali IAC is found primarily in Africa, it has clear non-African affinities (Text S1)."
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quote:Originally posted by beyoku: Reread the passage and tells us where he lies.
"This Ethio-Somali IAC is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic speaking Somali populations and at high frequencies in neighboring Cushitic and Semitic speaking Afar, Amhara, Oromo, and Tygray populations. This IAC was not identified in the source study for the HOA SNP data [16], but Tishkoff and colleagues [59], in an analysis of an independent autosomal microsatellite dataset, did recover an equivalent IAC (calling it ‘‘Cushitic’’). While this Ethio-Somali IAC is found primarily in Africa, it has clear non-African affinities (Text S1)."
This obsessions with back migration into Africa is hilarious.
Nor did I see the author mention the Abyssinian empire even one time.
This part I find amusing, since these are directly related to L3, yet is was a back migration, as usually. I'm now starting to wonder what went out?
They now even try to claim that E-M78 was "Eurasian" and was introduced to the horn by back my migration, as we'll.
quote: Archaeological data indicate trade between the HOA and Arabia by at least 8 ka [30], [31] and genetic analyses of mitochondrial and Y chromosome data suggest much earlier migrations into the HOA. Mitochondrial data are suggestive of as many as three waves of prehistoric non-African migration into the HOA. First, HOA populations carry several unique M1 lineages of the otherwise South and East Asian mitochondrial haplogroup M [13], [32]–[34]. Many of these HOA M1 lineages have deep roots, diverging from M1 representatives elsewhere 20–30 ka [34]–[36]. Second, representatives of N1a and N2a in the HOA diverged from their most closely related haplotypes in the Middle East and the Caucasus 15–20 ka [37]. Third, in the Eurasian mitochondrial HV1 and R0a lineages there are several sub-haplogroups (HV1a3, HV1b1, R0a2b, R0a2g) that are found in both the HOA and the Arabian Peninsula. Within these shared sub-haplogroup lineages, the HOA and Arabian haplotypes are distinct, suggesting that the migration that brought these lineages into the HOA happened soon after the sub-haplogroups began to diversify at 6–10 ka [38], [39].
Y chromosome data are also suggestive of at least two episodes of non-African migration into the HOA prior to 3 ka. First, HOA populations carry E-M78 Y chromosomes at high frequencies [40], [41]. E-M78 originated in northeastern Africa around 19 ka with a descendant lineage (E-V32) unique to the HOA that arrived by at least 6 ka [41]. Because northern African populations in this timeframe are inferred to have substantial non-African ancestry [42], [43], the expansion south of E-M78 could have introduced non-African ancestry into the HOA prior to 6 ka. Second, some HOA populations carry moderate to high frequencies of T-M70 (previously K2-M70) Y chromosomes [44]–[46]. The T haplogroup originated in the area of the Levant approximately 21 ka and the T-M70 sub-haplogroup was present in northeast Africa by at least 14 ka, possibly arriving in the HOA as early as 5 ka [44], [45], [47].
At some point they cited Kivisild, but I wonder why they didn't cite this here.
quote:
"These indicate that the root of L3 gives rise to a multifurcation from a single haplotype producing a number of distinct subclades... The simplest explanation for this geographical distribution [haplogroups M and N], however, is an expansion of the root type within East Africa, where several independent L3 branches thrive, including a sister group to L3, christened L4 (Kivisild et al. 2004; Chap. 7), followed by divergence into haplogroups M and N somewhere between the Horn of Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Since neither the L3 root type nor any other descendants survive outside Africa, the root type itself must have become extinct during a period of genetic drift in the founder population as it diversified into haplogroups M and N, if the diversification was outside Africa. If on the other hand the diversification was indeed within East Africa, then Haplogroups M and N must have either been carried out of Africa in their entirety or subsequently have become extinct within Africa, with the singular exception of the derived M1."
--Hans-Jürgen Bandelt et. 2006. EDS. Human Mitochondrial DNA and the Evolution of Homo sapiens.
Nor did they cite this:
quote: Although Haplogroup M differentiated soon after the out of Africa exit and it is widely distributed in Asia (east Asia and India) and Oceania, there is an interesting exception for one of its more than 40 sub-clades: M1...Indeed this lineage is mainly limited to the African continent with peaks in the Horn of Africa."
--Paola Spinozzi, Alessandro Zironi . (2010). Origins as a Paradigm in the Sciences and in the Humanities. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 48-50
Or this:
quote: Macrohaplogroup M (489-10400-14783-15043), excluding M1 which is east African, is distributed among most south, east and north Asians, Amerindians (containing a minority of north and central Amerindians and a majority of south Amerindians), and many central Asians and Melanesians.
--SUVENDU MAJI, S. KRITHIKA and T. S. VASULU (2009)
Phylogeographic distribution of mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup M in India
My conclusion is, the authors are a new era biased closet racist.
They've tried to cramp so much shyt in this one paper it becomes hilarious at some point.
Posts: 22235 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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quote:Originally posted by Clyde Winters: This paper is pure conjecture. The authors data make it clear that the admixture was only 2000 years old, but the authors attempt to claim the admixture dates back 10-20kya. .
Are you kidding 10-20Kya?
They go back long before that claiming admixture happened...
quote:"The Ethio-Somali ancestry is found in all admixed HOA ethnic groups, shows little inter-individual variance within these ethnic groups, is estimated to have diverged from all other non-African ancestries by at least 23 ka, and does not carry the unique Arabian lactase persistence allele that arose about 4 ka. Taking into account published mitochondrial, Y chromosome, paleoclimate, and archaeological data, we find that the time of the Ethio-Somali back-to-Africa migration is most likely pre-agricultural."
Yes, they really stated it, the linages are in Eurasian populations.
quote:Mitochondrial M1 and U6 lineages – sub-clades of mitochondrial haplogroups that are otherwise found only in Eurasian populations – are found both in North Africa and the HOA [34]. U6 has its highest frequencies and diversity in Northwest Africa and M1 has its highest frequencies and diversity in the HOA. The differing representation of deeply diverging M1 and U6 mitochondrial lineages in North Africa and the HOA shows that these regions have exchanged few female migrants since approximately 20 ka [36].
Yet, here we have:
quote:No southwest Asian specific clades for M1 or U6 were discovered. U6 and M1 frequencies in North Africa, the Middle East and Europe do not follow similar patterns, and their sub- clade divisions do not appear to be compatible with their shared history reaching back to the Early Upper Palaeolithic."
--Erwan Pennarun1*, Toomas Kivisild (2012)
Divorcing the Late Upper Palaeolithic demographic histories of mtDNA haplogroups M1 and U6 in Africa.
quote:Originally posted by Clyde Winters:
The South Arabians and HOA populations were basically the same so the whole foundation of the paper can be falsified on archaeological and historical data, which show the supremacy of the HOA on both sides of the Red Sea, only after the Nubians had first established civilization in the area.
.
Yup, that is what I've noticed as well.
And yes, it was the Abyssinian empire that ruled outside of Africa. Yet there is no mention of this. I wonder how this is this even possible. In fact, Ethiopian history tells that Ethiopia (the Horn.) has never been colonized/ conquered.
I also wonder why the author didn't mention any of the cultural similarities and or "so called incoming industries"?
But I so understand the assessment. Since it is claimed that Horner's are close related to pharaonic ancient Egyptians. How else is one going to claim Eurasia input in ancient Egypt. They have to go back far, far away. If you read between the lines.
Which they reveal here:
quote:In the African-origins model, the original diversification of the Afro-Asiatic languages is pre-agricultural, with the source population living in the central Nile valley, the African Red Sea hills, or the HOA [108], [111].
Then again, when it suits them:
quote: Bedouins, Jordanians, Palestinians and Saudi Arabians are located in close proximity to each other, which is consistent with a common origin in the Arabian Peninsula25, whereas the Egyptian, Moroccan, Mozabite Berber, and Yemenite samples are located closer to sub- Saharan populations (Fig. 1a and Supplementary Fig. 2a).
[...]
Equally interesting are the inferences that can be gleaned from more distant Diaspora communities, such as the Ethiopian and Indian Jewish communities. Strong similarities to their neighbouring host populations may have resulted from one or more of the following: large-scale introgression, asymmetrical sex-biased gene flow, or religious and cultural diffusion during the process of becoming one of the many and varied Jewish communities.
[...]
--Bayazit Yunusbayev, Oleg Balanovsky et al.
The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people
Vol 466|8 July 2010|doi:10.1038/nature09103
Received 9 December 2009; accepted 21 April 2010. Published
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quote:Originally posted by xyyman: Paper is a waste of time. Same ole same ole. All the paper shows is there are similar DNA material on both sides of the Red Sea which is a well known fact. Only Treemix analysis(or similar) for SNPs can determine direction or Haplotype diversity for HGs can determine origin. Niether were done.
This is not worth discussing.
This is another part of the same "study":
quote: To investigate this further, we generated new genome-wide SNP data for a Yemeni population sample and merged these new data with published genome-wide genetic data from the HOA and a broad selection of surrounding populations. We used multidimensional scaling and ADMIXTURE methods in an exploratory data analysis to develop hypotheses on admixture and population structure in HOA populations. These analyses suggested that there might be distinct, differentiated African and non-African ancestries in the HOA. After partitioning the SNP data into African and non-African origin chromosome segments, we found support for a distinct African (Ethiopic) ancestry and a distinct non-African (Ethio-Somali) ancestry in HOA populations. The African Ethiopic ancestry is tightly restricted to HOA populations and likely represents an autochthonous HOA population. The non-African ancestry in the HOA, which is primarily attributed to a novel Ethio-Somali inferred ancestry component, is significantly differentiated from all neighboring non-African ancestries in North Africa, the Levant, and Arabia
--Jason A. Hodgson, Connie J. Mulligan, Ali Al-Meeri, Ryan L. Raaum
Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa
Published: June 12, 2014DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393
I wonder why they didn't cite this here?
quote: We use high-resolution genetic data to investigate the genetic and linguistic support for hypotheses concerning the population history in the Chad Basin. The mitochondrial L3f3 haplogroup is found almost exclusively in Chadic speaking populations and its TMRCA corresponds well with archaeological and linguistic dates of the proposed migration of Chadic speaking pastoralists from East or North East Africa to the Chad Basin.
Haplogroup L3f is defined by the coding variants
3396-4218-15514-15944del and the control region motif 16209–16519 with a TMRCA of 57,100 ± 9,400 YBP. This haplogroup diversifies into sub-haplogroups L3f1, L3f2 and L3f3. The most geographically widespread sub-haplogroup is L3f1, which is distributed across the African continent [3] and also Arabia [32,33] and has a TMRCA of 48,600 ± 11,500 YBP.
[...]
"The youngest clade, L3f1b2, seems to be more frequent in the Middle East. L3f1a seems to be older (37,700 ± 10,000 YBP) than its sister sub-haplogroup L3f1b and is also less diversified. A few samples from Chad belong to these sub-haplogroups: two to L3f1a and one to L3f1b3."
"We then estimated pairwise FST genetic distances between populations (Additional file 4) and displayed these on a MDS plot (Figure 3). Interesting results are immediately evident – while Chadic populations form a relatively homogeneous group, the Cushitic populations split into two completely different clusters. The first group is composed of Horn of African populations, such as Ethiopian and Somali Cushitic populations, which are close to neighbouring Ethiopian Semitic speaking groups and relatively close also to Chadic people from the Chad Basin. The second Cushitic group is composed by more southern groups from Tanzania, i.e. Burunge and Iraqw, who occupy outlier positions even within the Afro-Asiatic MDS plot. In the MDS plot, geography is more strongly associated with genetic distance than is linguistic affiliation.
Overall, we observe that Chadic speaking populations are intermixed with other populations from Chad Basin, including Niger-Congo, Semitic, and Berber speaking people. In this context, it seems that the linguistic categories play a secondary role in structuring the genetic diversity." [/QB]
--Viktor Černý1 et al.
Migration of Chadic speaking pastoralists within Africa based on population structure of Chad Basin and phylogeography of mitochondrial L3f haplogroup
Nor this:
quote: "Particularly, Yemen has the largest contribution of L lineages (30). So, most probably, this area was the entrance gate of a portion of these lineages in prehistoric times, which participated in the building of the primitive Arabian population."
--Khaled K Abu-Amero et al.
Mitochondrial DNA structure in the Arabian Peninsula
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posted
I wonder if there is any association with the Islamic expansion? Or are the authors claiming it never happened?
And I can't imagine how one can mention the Levant during the Holocene, yet leaves out the Natufians?
quote: The T haplogroup originated in the area of the Levant approximately 21 ka and the T-M70 sub-haplogroup was present in northeast Africa by at least 14 ka, possibly arriving in the HOA as early as 5 ka [44], [45], [47].
quote: Abstract
Cylindrical objects made usually of fired clay but sometimes of stone were found at the Yarmukian Pottery Neolithic sites of Sha‘ar HaGolan and Munhata (first half of the 8th millennium BP) in the Jordan Valley. Similar objects have been reported from other Near Eastern Pottery Neolithic sites. Most scholars have interpreted them as cultic objects in the shape of phalli, while others have referred to them in more general terms as “clay pestles,” “clay rods,” and “cylindrical clay objects.” Re-examination of these artifacts leads us to present a new interpretation of their function and to suggest a reconstruction of their technology and mode of use. We suggest that these objects were components of fire drills and consider them the earliest evidence of a complex technology of fire ignition, which incorporates the cylindrical objects in the role of matches.
[...]
Drilling has been documented as early as the Natufian culture (15,000–11,700 years calBP) through increased numbers of cap stones and drilled stones including beads [26]–[27].
--Naama Goren-Inbar et al.
The Earliest Matches
Received: May 15, 2012; Accepted: July 2, 2012; Published: August 1, 2012
PLoS ONE 7(8): e42213. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042213
posted
Of course lioness the fake African American, dropped ass then ran off.
quote:This large pre-Islamic inscription is depicted on a rock near a well in southern Arabia and consists of ten lines. It is popularly known as "the inscription of Abraha." The inscription is still in its original location; a replica is on display in the museum
نقش سبئي
(i) Transliteration b kh ya l / r h m n n / w m s ya h ha / m l k n / a b r ha / z ya b m n / m l k / s b a / w z r ya d n / w h dh r m d t
Transcription B'khail / ar-rahman / wmaseeha / malikan / Abraha / Zaybm / malik / sab'a / w zarydan / w hadarmaut
Translation With the power (help) of god, and the Jesus (=Christian) King Abraha Zeebman (King's title), the King of Saba'a, Zuridan and Hadrmaut.
(ii) w ya m n t / w r a a'in r b ha m r / ta w d m / w t ha m t / s ta r w / z n / s ta r n / k gh z ya w
w yement / wa r'a rab hamw / Twadam / w thamat / satro / zn / satran / K'ghazow
and Yemen and the tribes (on) the mountains and the coast wrote these lines on his battle
(iii) m a'in d m / gh z w t n / r b a'in t n / b w r kh n / z th b t n / k f s d w / k l / b n ya a'in m r m
against the tribe of Ma'ad ( in ) the battle of al-Rabiya in the month of "Dhu al Thabithan" (April) and fight (against) all the (tribes) of Bani A'amir.
(iv) w z k ya / m l k n / a b j b r / b a'in m / k d t / w a'in l / w b sh r m / b n h sa n m / b a'in / m
Wazaki/ malikn/ abjabar / b ainam/ kadat/ wain/ w basharm / bin hasahanm/ bainm
and appointed the King (the leader) "Abi Jabar" with (tribe) Kinda and (Qahtani tribe) Al (and the leader) "Bishar bin Hasan" with
(v) s a'in d m / w m r d m / w h dh r w / q d m ya / j ya sh n / a'in l ya b n ya a'in m r m / k d t / w a'in l / b w d / z m r kh / w m r d m / w s d m / b w d.
San dam/ wa mardam / wa hadaru/ qadami / jayshan/ alia bani yamram/ kadat/ wail/ b wad /samrakh / wa mardam/ wa sadam/ b wad..
(Tribe) Sa'ad ( and the tribe) Murad and ( the tribe) Hadarmaut (stand) in front of the army against Bani Amir of Kinda. and (the tribe) Al in wadi "zu markh" and Murad and Sa'ad in wadi
(vi) b m n ha j / t r b n / w z b h w / w a s r w / w gh n m w / z a'in s m / w m kh dh / m l k n / b h l b n / w d n w.
B manhaj / tarban/ w zabahow / wa sarw / w ghanamw / zaisam / wa makhdah/ malakin/ b halban/ wa danw
Manha on the way to Turban and killed and captured and took the booty in large quantities and the King and fought at Halban and reached
(vii) k za l / m a'in d m / w r ha n w / w b a'in d n ha w / w s a'in ha m w / a'in m r m / b n / m z r n..
Ka zalam/ maidam / wrahanw / wa badanahaw / nwa sa'aham mw / amram / bin/ mazran.
Ma'ad and took booty and prisoners, and after that, conquered (from the tribe of Ma'ad) Omro bin al-Munzir …
(viii) w r ha n m w / b n ha w / w s t kh l fa ha w / a'in l ya / m a'in d m / w q f l w / b n / h l
Wa rahanamw / bin haw / wa sata khalafw / ala/ ma'dam/ wa qafalw/ bin/ hal.
(and according to the agreement between Abrha and the tribe of Ma'ad) (Abrhas) appointed the son (of Omro) as the ruler and returned (Abraha) from Hal.
(ix) (b) n / (b) kh ya l / r h m n n / w r kh ha w / z a'in l n / z l th n ya / w s th ya / w s
( bi)n / (b) akhayal / rahman / wa rakhaw / zalan / salthany / w sathya/ ws
Ban (halban) with the power of the god in the month of Zu A'allan in the year sixty-two
(x) th / m a t m
Tha / matam
and six hundred
النص ب خ ى ل / ر ح م ن ن / و م س ى ح هـ / م ل ك ن / أ ب ر هـ / ز ى ب م ن / م ل ك / س ب أ / و ذ ر ي د ن / و ح ض ر م و ت
القراءة بقوة الرحمن ومسيحة الملك أبرهة زيبمان ملك سبأ وذو ريدان وحضرموت
ـ 2 ـ و ي م ن ت / و ر أ ع ر ب هـ م و / ط و د م / و ت هـ م ت / س ط ر و / ذ ن / س ط ر ن / ك غ ز ى و
.ويمنات وقبائلهم (في) الجبال والسواحل ، سطر هذا النقش عندما غزا
ـ 3 ـ م ع د م / غ ز و ت ن / ر ب ع ت ن / ب و ر خ ن / ذ ث ب ت ن / ك ف س د و / ك ل / ب ن ى ع م رم/
(قبيلة) معد (في) غزوة الربيع في شهر "ذو الثابة" (ابريل) عندما ثاروا كل (قبائل) بنى عامر
ـ 4 ـ و ذ ك ى / م ل ك ن / أ ب ج ب ر / ب ع م / ك د ت / و ع ل / و ب ش ر م / ب ن ح ص ن م / ب ع م
وعين الملك (القائد) "أبي جبر" مع (قبيلة) على (والقائد) "بشر بن حصن" مع
ـ 5 ـ س ع د م / و م ر د م / و ح ض ر و / ق د م ى / ج ي ش ن / ع ل ي / ب ن ي ع م ر م / ك د ت / و ع ل / ب و د / ذ م ر خ / و م ر د م / و س ع د م / ب و د
قبيلة) سعد (وقبيلة) مراد وحضروا أمام الجيش ـ ضد بنى عامر (وجهت) كندة وعلى في) وادي "ذو مرخ" ومراد وسعد في وادي
ـ 6 ـ ب م ن هـ ج / ت ر ب ن / و ذ ب ح و / و أ س ر و / و غ ن م و / ذ ع س م / و م خ ض / م ل ك ن / ب ح ل ب ن / و د ن و
على طريق تربن وذبحوا وأسروا وغنموا بوفرة وحارب الملك في حلبن واقترب
ـ 7 ـ ك ظ ل / م ع د م / و ر هـ ن و / و ب ع د ن هـ و / و س ع هـ م و / ع م ر م / ب ن / م ذ ر ن
كظل معد (وأخذ) اسرى، وبعد ذلك فوضوا (قبيلة معد) عمروا بن المنذر (في
ـ 8 ـ و ر هـ ن هـ م و / ب ن هـ و / و س ت خ ل ف هـ و / ع ل ى / م ع د م / و ق ف ل و / ب ن / ح ل
الصلح) فضمنهم ابنه (عروا) (عن أبرهة) فعينه حاكماً على) معد ورجع (أبرهة) من حلـ
ـ 9 ـ (ب) ن / ( ب ) خ ى ل / ر ح م ن ن / و ر خ هـ و / ذ ع ل ن / ذ ل ث ن ى / و س ث ى / و س
بن (حلبان) بقوة الرحمن في شهر ذو علان في السنة الثانية والستين وسـ
ـ 10 ـ ث / م أ ت م
ستمائة
مسند جنوبي
Transliteration ha z a'in n b t a l
Transcription/Translation Haza'a nabt al
(name of the deceased)
النص
ح ذ ع ن ب ت أ ل
القراءة حذع نبت أل
مسند جنوبي
Transliteration n ya a'in th t / k ya l / w m q m / sh ya m ha m w gh wa n ha m w / b n / a a'in r b n / w b z t t a t b / r ya m m / s a'in d / w ha w f ya n r ya m m / r dh w / w h sd ya / m r a ha m
Transcription Nai Asath/ Khail/ w maqam/ shai mahamo/ Ghawnham/bin/ A'araban/ w bazat/ Ta'atab/remom/sad/w hawfain Remom/ Rado/ wa hasiya/ mraham
Translation With the power of Naiqthat and his high position Ghawnaham from the Arabian tribe of Dhat Ta'atab - Raimam Sa'ad Fulfilled and pleased with the will of their Lord and his presence.
حجر عليه نقش مسند جنوبي مفقود جزء منه والجزء الواضح يتكون من اربعة أسطر كتبت بطريقة النقر وبخط غائر من اليمين إلى اليسار
النص 1- ن ي ع ث ت ، خ ي ل ، و م ق م ، ش ي م هـ م و ، 2- غ و ن هـ م و ، ب ن ، أ ع غ ب ن ، و ب ذ ت 3- ت أ ت ب ، ر ي م م ، س ع د ، و هـ و ف ي ن 4- ر ي م م ، ر ض و ، و ح ص ي ، م ر أ هـ م
القراءة نيعست خيل ومقام شيمهمو ونهمو بن (من) أعربن (بمعنى قبيلة) وبذت (وتأتتب ريمم سعد وهوفين (بمعنى وأوفى (ريمم بوصية المعبود رضو على مرآ هم (_على سمعهم
Posts: 22235 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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quote:Originally posted by beyoku: Reread the passage and tells us where he lies.
"This Ethio-Somali IAC is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic speaking Somali populations and at high frequencies in neighboring Cushitic and Semitic speaking Afar, Amhara, Oromo, and Tygray populations. This IAC was not identified in the source study for the HOA SNP data [16], but Tishkoff and colleagues [59], in an analysis of an independent autosomal microsatellite dataset, did recover an equivalent IAC (calling it ‘‘Cushitic’’). While this Ethio-Somali IAC is found primarily in Africa, it has clear non-African affinities (Text S1)."
I read that part about the Agaws
quote:
Map of African areas where E3b1 cluster has been observed (the numbers of individuals are given in parentheses).10 (1) Moroccan Arabs (54), (2) Northern Egyptians (21), (3) Ethiopian Jews (22), (4) Ethiopian Amharas (34), (5) Ethiopian Wolaytas (12), (6) Mixed Ethiopians (12), (7) Ethiopian Oromos (25), (8) Somalia (224 including our Somali data), (9) Boranas (Oromos) from Kenya (seven), (10) Bantus from Kenya (28), (11) Tuaregs from Niger (22). The haplogroups or remaining paragroups are represented by different fill patterns. Lineages excluded from a haplogroup are listed within parentheses after the name of the haplogroup. The distribution of the Cushitic language in East Africa is shown in grey.
Phylogenetic distribution of the 43 Y chromosome haplogroups that can be detected by the 45 biallelic markers. The arrow indicates the ancestral root of the maximal parsimonious YCC tree (2003).5 The major divisions of human Y chromosome diversity are labelled with large, capital letters in bold. On the right is shown the distribution of Y chromosome haplogroups in Somalis and in people from sub-Saharan West Africa, Turkey and Iraq. The relative frequencies in percent are shown in parentheses. aBecause none of our subjects studied belong to the haplogroup E3b1b, defined by the presence of M224,4 we used the haplogroup name E3b1 instead of E3b1*(xE3b1b) in the text.
Principal component analysis of the relative frequencies of Y chromosome haplogroups in the populations reported in Table 2. The vectors express the relative weight of each haplogroup in the first and/or second axis. The positive or negative values indicate with which end of the axis the haplogroups are associated. Thus, the first principal component (axis 1) explained 52.8% of the total variance, mainly due to differences in the frequencies in clade E and clade BR*(xE). The second component (axis 2) explained 26.6% of the total variance, mainly due to the differences in the frequencies of the E3a and E3b lineages.
--Juan J Sanchez, Charlotte Hallenberg, Claus Børsting, Alexis Hernandez and Niels Morling
High frequencies of Y chromosome lineages characterized by E3b1, DYS19-11, DYS392-12 in Somali males
quote:Originally posted by Amun-Ra The Ultimate: This is a very bad way to use the Admixture software (I wont enumerate all the reasons here in this post, they are multiple) and does make a lot of baseless hypothesis and unproven conjecture. I won't discuss every conjecture but consider this part of the text:
quote:This Ethio-Somali IAC is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic speaking Somali populations and at high frequencies in neighboring Cushitic and Semitic speaking Afar, Amhara, Oromo, and Tygray populations. This IAC was not identified in the source study for the HOA SNP data [16], but Tishkoff and colleagues [59], in an analysis of an independent autosomal microsatellite dataset, did recover an equivalent IAC (calling it ‘‘Cushitic’’). While this Ethio-Somali IAC is found primarily in Africa, it has clear non-African affinities (Text S1).
Basically, he admits his non-African Ethio-Somali IAC was not discovered in the source study he used for the HOA SNP data, but then he lie to us !
He says "but Tishkoff and colleagues" "did revover an equivalent IAC (calling it "Cushitic"). Then proceed to tell us that this IAC has clear non-African affinities. This is a lie because in the Tishkoff study the Cushitic IAC had clear African affinities:
From the Tiskhoff study in question supp.Mat (The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans.):
Clearly the Cushitic AAC/IAC identified in the Tishkoff study had a clear African affinity.
In another line of analysis, "the source study for the HOA SNP data [16]" is the Pagani study called "Ethiopian Genetic Diversity Reveals Linguistic Stratification and Complex Influences on the Ethiopian Gene Pool" beside not showing this non African IAC as he admits, it suffers from a high level of SNP Ascertainment Bias in favor of non-African affiliations. As admitted in the Pagani study:
quote:The Semitic-Cushitic and North African populations showed the highest values of heterozygosity worldwide, which may reflect a combination of SNP ascertainment bias and the mixture of African and non-African components in these populations.
Usually African populations have a much higher level of heterozygosity than European or North African population. The effect of SNP ascertainment bias is a consequence of the SNP discovery process where a sub-set of European population are used. This translate in bias PCA analysis and Admixture software proportion of admixture (in favor of Eurasian SNPs/clusters). This SNP ascertainment bias is common in many SNP microarray. In general, all such analysis based on a pre-selected group of SNPs/microarray must always take this SNP ascertainment bias in consideration when analyzing population admixture and affiliation. Hopefully, in the future full genome analysis could end this bias toward non-African and Eurasian SNPs. Still those "admixture" and PCAs analysis have their use, but everything must be put in perspective and any bias taken into consideration. So when you see such admixture software analysis with all the K colors always consider this.
In my opinion, there always is some ancient and more recent admixture between populations (in both directions) but here the ancient non-African contribution to HOA is greatly over-estimated (you can even see the blue part of the Nilo-Saharan component being engulfed by this so-called non-African component). It simply reflect structuring among African population in Horn Africa on one part and mostly "recent" bi-directional relationship between HOA and Eurasian populations (often confused in admixture software analysis when any K is taken as valid). The Tishkoff Cushitic IAC confusion(lie) by the author points to that direction as does other previous studies.
quote: "we found support for a distinct African (Ethiopic) ancestry and a distinct non-African (Ethio-Somali) ancestry in HOA populations. The African Ethiopic ancestry is tightly restricted to HOA populations and likely represents an autochthonous HOA population.".
--Jason A. Hodgson, Connie J. Mulligan, Ali Al-Meeri, Ryan L. Raaum
Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa
Published: June 12, 2014DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393
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quote:Originally posted by beyoku: Reread the passage and tells us where he lies.
"This Ethio-Somali IAC is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic speaking Somali populations and at high frequencies in neighboring Cushitic and Semitic speaking Afar, Amhara, Oromo, and Tygray populations. This IAC was not identified in the source study for the HOA SNP data [16], but Tishkoff and colleagues [59], in an analysis of an independent autosomal microsatellite dataset, did recover an equivalent IAC (calling it ‘‘Cushitic’’) . While this Ethio-Somali IAC is found primarily in Africa, it has clear non-African affinities (Text S1)."
The lying part is when he said that Tishkoff found and I quote an "equivalent" IAC than his non-African ethio-somali IAC. It is NOT true that his non-African ethio-somali IAC is equivalent to Tishkoff's Cushitic AAC. Tishkkoff's AAC had clear a clear African affinity contrary to his non-African AAC. They are not equivalent at all.
At first he admits that his non-African "IAC was not identified in the source study for the HOA SNP data", the Pagani study, this part is true of course, but then he tries to lie to us by saying that Tishkofff did find an equivalent non-African IAC. This is a lie because Tishkoff Cushitic AAC is not equivalent to his non-African AAC. As we can see in the Tishkoff study, her Cushitic AAC clearly had African affinity.
From the Tishkoff study in question supp.Mat (The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans.):
Both the source study for the HOA SNP data(Pagani), and the Tishkoff, and previous studies contradict him as no such cluster was found in those studies. They place the date for the most part of the early HOA admixture with non-African at a later date corresponding to the spread of ethio-semitic languages in Africa.
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"These indicate that the root of L3 gives rise to a multifurcation from a single haplotype producing a number of distinct subclades... The SIMPLEST explanation for this geographical distribution [haplogroups M and N], however, is an expansion of the root type within East Africa, where several independent L3 branches thrive, including a sister group to L3, christened L4 (Kivisild et al. 2004; Chap. 7), followed by divergence into haplogroups M and N somewhere between the Horn of Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Since neither the L3 root type nor any other descendants survive outside Africa, the root type itself must have become extinct during a period of genetic drift in the founder population as it diversified into haplogroups M and N, if the diversification was outside Africa. If on the other hand the diversification was indeed within East Africa, then Haplogroups M and N must have either been carried out of Africa in their entirety or subsequently have become extinct within Africa, with the singular exception of the derived M1."
===
As I pointed out many times. M and N/RO is within Africa. Wile N went West. , M went East.
-------------------- Without data you are just another person with an opinion - Deming Posts: 12143 | From: When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable | Registered: Jun 2007
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posted
Lol. Really? This is it? This is the best this forum can do? All I see is clueless grasping at straws (e.g. "SNP ascertainment bias", "Hodgson lied about Tishkoff") and denialism. Where is the inspired commentary and analysis on this Ethio-Somali IAC?
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quote:The dates of admixture (assuming 30 years per generation)42 are reported in Table 1. Notably, in most of the Semitic, Cushitic, and Omotic populations, the admixture of African and non-African ancestry components dates to 2.5–3 kya , whereas in North Africa, the admixture dates are ~2 ky more recent, clustering around 1 kya, consistent with previous reports .43 The consistency between the Ethiopian estimates and the appearance in the area of a linguistic family (Ethio-Semitic) with a West Asian origin23 support the hypothesis of a recent gene flow from the Levant.
From Ethiopian Genetic Diversity Reveals Linguistic Stratification and Complex Influences on the Ethiopian Gene Pool (Pagani 2012)
- So most of the early non-African admixture in the HOA is between 2.5–3 kya
- This is consistant with previous reports
- It supports the hypothesis of recent gene flow from the Levant corresponding to the spread of ethio-semitic language speakers in that region.
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quote:Originally posted by Swenet: Lol. Really? This is it? This is the best this forum can do? All I see is clueless grasping at straws (e.g. "SNP ascertainment bias", "Hodgson lied about Tishkoff") and denialism. Where is the inspired commentary and analysis on this Ethio-Somali IAC?
You're right, I didn't read the paper on, Inferred Ancestry Components, entirely.
Only what was supplied by lioness, in the opening post.
From reading that, I found it already ironic how they came to certain conclusions. I also noticed they substituted the term caucasoid for Eurasian.
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"These indicate that the root of L3 gives rise to a multifurcation from a single haplotype producing a number of distinct subclades... The SIMPLEST explanation for this geographical distribution [haplogroups M and N], however, is an expansion of the root type within East Africa, where several independent L3 branches thrive, including a sister group to L3, christened L4 (Kivisild et al. 2004; Chap. 7), followed by divergence into haplogroups M and N somewhere between the Horn of Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Since neither the L3 root type nor any other descendants survive outside Africa, the root type itself must have become extinct during a period of genetic drift in the founder population as it diversified into haplogroups M and N, if the diversification was outside Africa. If on the other hand the diversification was indeed within East Africa, then Haplogroups M and N must have either been carried out of Africa in their entirety or subsequently have become extinct within Africa, with the singular exception of the derived M1."
===
As I pointed out many times. M and N/RO is within Africa. Wile N went West. , M went East.
This is from Jason A. Hodgson's own paper,
quote:
Fig. 1. From: Ancient mitochondrial M haplogroups identified in the Southwest Pacific.
Frequency distributions of mtDNA haplogroups M27, M28, and M29, taken from our series (Table 1). Numbers within each pie are values of N. “Other” haplogroups are P, Q, B, and E, as reported in Table 1 for this series (and discussed in ref. 12). Our New Hanover, Ontong Java, and Polynesian frequenciesof the three variants (all zero) are not depicted. D. Andrew Merriwether, et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 September 13; 2005 November 15;102(37):13034-13039.
Fig. 2. From: Ancient mitochondrial M haplogroups identified in the Southwest Pacific.
Phylogenetic relationships of ancient Near Oceanic and Australian Aborigine M lineages. Control region mutations are in bold, and mutations that recur in the phylogeny are underlined. The poly(C) regions in HVS1 and -2 as well as 16519 are excluded. Boxes indicate inferred additional branches defined by control region sequences (see Table 2). Skeleton branches within Q are completely defined in ref. 12. Sample numbers are listed at the top, with island proveniences abbreviated as follows: BGV, Bougainville; NB, New Britain; NI, New Ireland. Australian Aborigine M42 sequences are listed courtesy of T. Kivisild. The 6104 back mutation is nonconfirmed. The OC12 and OC13 branches list coding region variants only.
[...]
Short voyages between islands are inferred (2, 6) because people had successfully made the longer windward crossing to Bougainville from New Ireland by 29,000 YBP, and after 20,000 YBP there was a detectable and repeated trickle of New Britain obsidian to New Ireland and Nissan up to ≈7,000 YBP. (Page 2)
[...]
The phylogenetic tree was inferred from median-joining networks rooted to L3. The tree was hand-checked to resolve several homoplasies. A few ambiguities remained, and we tended to be conservative in interpreting those cases. (Page 5)
--D. Andrew Merriwether, Jason A. Hodgson, [...], and Jonathan S. Friedlaender Ancient mitochondrial M haplogroups identified in the Southwest Pacific
quote:Originally posted by Amun-Ra The Ultimate: Here's a quote from the Pagani study:
quote:The dates of admixture (assuming 30 years per generation)42 are reported in Table 1. Notably, in most of the Semitic, Cushitic, and Omotic populations, the admixture of African and non-African ancestry components dates to 2.5–3 kya , whereas in North Africa, the admixture dates are ~2 ky more recent, clustering around 1 kya, consistent with previous reports .43 The consistency between the Ethiopian estimates and the appearance in the area of a linguistic family (Ethio-Semitic) with a West Asian origin23 support the hypothesis of a recent gene flow from the Levant.
From Ethiopian Genetic Diversity Reveals Linguistic Stratification and Complex Influences on the Ethiopian Gene Pool (Pagani 2012)
- So most of the early non-African admixture in the HOA is between 2.5–3 kya
- This is consistant with previous reports
- It supports the hypothesis of recent gene flow from the Levant corresponding to the spread of ethio-semitic language speakers in that region.
It even more so correlates with the Ancient Ethiopian City of Aksum. Which btw, is not being mentioned by the authors.
Ancient Map of Aksum (100-700 AD) -- History of Africa, Kevin Shillington, p. 69 (2005)
Ancient Ethiopian City of Aksum or Axum Rise & Decline
The Rise of Aksum
The kingdom of Aksum was at the height of its power between 100-700 AD. The Aksumite king Ezana I (320-350 AD) assumed power when Askum, without doubt, was a strong and large empire. The king's main wealth and power came from his control of foreign trade.
Aksum's Partial Kings List:
Zoskales 100 AD Endubis 270 AD (Coinage begins) Ezana 320 AD Eon 400 AD Kaleb 500 AD Gersem 600 AD Armah 614 AD al-Walid 705-715 AD
What was going on in the rest of the world during this time frame:
460 AD Fall of the Roman Empire (Edward Gibbon placed the blame on a loss of civic virtue among the Roman citizens.) 619 AD Egypt falls to Persia 640 AD Egypt falls to Arabs
posted
Let's take a look at the Y-DNA and MtDNA data for the Somali populations:
Here we can count 15.4% of non-African (F-Descendants) Y-DNA haplogroups carriers in Somali populations (at the very least, in their samples of Somali often urban based and more cosmopolitan).
The MtDNA proportion of non-African (non-L) haplogroups is 38.88% in Somali from another study.
Y-DNA:15.4% MtDNA:38.88%
We can see Somali, as most borderline states in North and Eastern Africa, have a substantial proportion of non-African haplogroups (dating to between 2-3kya according to the Pagani, previous studies and archaeological records).
The earliest substantial non-African gene flow into the HOA is correlated to the spread of ethio-semitic language speakers in that region dated from the same time period (2-3kya).
We can also see that the proportion of non-African DNA in Somali is mostly female mediated.
This shows that most of the early non-African gene flow in Somali was probably done through patrilocal intermarriage between indigenous Somali and ethio-semitic language speakers (or those admixed with them). It would explain why Somali have a much smaller proportion of non-African Y-DNA than mtDNA. It would also explain why they kept their cushitic language instead of switching to an ethio-semitic language. Why they look mostly African too. As patrilocal marriage tend to keep the culture and language of the receiving party, the Y-DNA males in our cases, who are mostly (84.6%) African.
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quote:Originally posted by Amun-Ra The Ultimate: --
I find it weird that the authors don't mention this.
quote: Outstanding Universal Value
Brief Synthesis
Situated in the highlands of northern Ethiopia, Aksum symbolizes the wealth and importance of the civilization of the ancient Aksumite kingdom, which lasted from the 1st to the 8th centuries AD. The kingdom was at the crossroads of the three continents: Africa, Arabia and the Greco-Roman World, and was the most powerful state between the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia. In command of the ivory trade with Sudan, its fleets controlled the Red Sea trade through the port of Adulis and the inland routes of north eastern Africa.
The ruins of the ancient Aksumite Civilization covered a wide area in the Tigray Plateau. The most impressive monuments are the monolithic obelisks, royal tombs and the palace ruins dating to the 6th and 7th centuries AD.
Several stelae survive in the town of Aksum dating between the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. The largest standing obelisk rises to a height of over 23 meters and is exquisitely carved to represent a nine-storey building of the Aksumites. It stands at the entrance of the main stelae area. The largest obelisk of some 33 meters long lies where it fell, perhaps during the process of erection. It is possibly the largest monolithic stele that ancient human beings ever attempted to erect.
A series of inscription on stone tablets have proved to be of immense importance to historians of the ancient world. Some of them include trilingual text in Greek, Sabaean and Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopian), inscribed by King Ezana in the 4th century AD.
The introduction of Christianity in the 4th century AD resulted in the building of churches, such as Saint Mary of Zion, rebuilt in the Gondarian period, in the 17th century AD, which is believed to hold the Ark of the Covenant.
Criterion (i): The exquisitely carved monolithic stelae dating from the 3rd and 4th centuries AD are unique masterpieces of human creative genius.
Criterion (iv): The urban ensemble of obelisks, royal tombs and churches constitute a major development in the cultural domain reflecting the wealth and power of the Aksumite Civilization of the first millennium AD.
quote:
Long Description
The ruins of the ancient city of Aksum are located close to Ethiopia's northern border. They mark the location of the heart of ancient Ethiopia, when the Kingdom of Aksum was the most powerful state between the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia. The massive ruins, dating from between the 1st and 13th centuries, include monolithic obelisks, giant stelae, royal tombs and the ruins of ancient castles. Long after its political decline in the 10th century, Ethiopian emperors continued to be crowned in Aksum.
Beginning around the 2nd millennium BCE and continuing until the 4th century CE there was immigration into the Ethiopian region. The immigrants came mostly from a region of western Yemen associated with the Sabean culture. Conditions in their homelands were most probably so harsh that the only means of escape was by a direct route across the Red Sea into Eritrea. By the 4th century, Aksum was already at its peak in land sovereignty, which included most of southern Yemen.
The city of Aksum emerged several centuries before the birth of Christ, as the capital of a state that traded with ancient Greece, Egypt and Asia. With its fleets sailing as far afield as Ceylon, Aksum later became the most important power between the Roman Empire and Persia, and for a while controlled parts of South Arabia. Aksum, whose name first appears in the 1st century AD in the Periplus of the Eritrean Sea, is considered to be the heart of ancient Ethiopia. Indeed, the kingdom which held sway over this area at this time took its name from the city. The ruins of the site spread over a large area and are composed of tall, obelisk-like stelae of imposing height, an enormous table of stone, vestiges of columns and royal tombs inscribed with Aksumite legends and traditions. In the western sector of the city there are also the ruins of three castles from the 1st century AD.
The earliest records and legends suggest that it was from Aksum that Makeda, the fabled Queen of Sheba, journeyed to visit King Solomon in Jerusalem. A son was born to the queen from her union with Solomon. This son, Menelik I, grew up in Ethiopia but travelled to Jerusalem as a young man, where he spent several years before returning to his own country with the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark, according to Ethiopian belief, has remained in Aksum ever since (in an annex to the Church of St Mary of Zion).
In addition to the old St Mary of Zion church, there are many other remains in Aksum dating back to pre- and early Christian times. Among these, a series of inscriptions on stone tablets have proved to be of immense importance to historians of the ancient world. They include a trilingual text in Greek, Sabaean (the language of South Arabia) and Ge'ez (classical Ethiopian), ordered by King Ezana in the 4th century AD, along with the 3,000-year-old stelae and obelisks. The standing obelisk rises to a height of over 23 m and is exquisitely carved to represent a nine-storey building in the fashion of the 'tower-houses' of southern Arabia.
Aksum inherited a culture highly influenced by southern Arabia. The Aksumites' language, Ge'ez, was a modified version of the southern Arabian rudiments, with admixtures of Greek and perhaps Cushitic tongues already present in the region. Their architectural art was inherited from southern Arabian art; some Aksumite artwork contained combinations of Middle Eastern deities.
From its capital on the Tigray Plateau, Aksum was in command of the ivory trade with Sudan. It also dominated the trade route leading south and the port of Adulis on the Gulf of Zola. Its success depended on resourceful techniques, the production of coins, steady migrations of Graeco-Roman merchants and ships landing at the port of Adulis. In exchange for Aksum's goods, traders offered many kinds of cloth, jewellery and metals, especially steel for weapons.
At its peak, Aksum controlled territories as far as southern Egypt, east to the Gulf of Aden, south to the Omo River, and west to the Cushite Kingdom of Meroë. The South Arabian kingdom of the Himyarites was also under the control of Aksum. Unlike the nobility, the people used salt and iron bars as money and barter remained their main source of commerce.
quote:Originally posted by Amun-Ra The Ultimate: Let's take a look at the Y-DNA and MtDNA data for the Somali populations:
Here we can count 15.4% of non-African (F-Descendants) Y-DNA haplogroups carriers in Somali populations (at the very least, in their samples of Somali often urban based and more cosmopolitan).
The MtDNA proportion of non-African (non-L) haplogroups is 38.88% in Somali from another study.
Y-DNA:15.4% MtDNA:38.88%
We can see Somali, as most borderline states in North and Eastern Africa, have a substantial proportion of non-African haplogroups (dating to between 2-3kya according to the Pagani, previous studies and archaeological records).
The earliest substantial non-African gene flow into the HOA is correlated to the spread of ethio-semitic language speakers in that region dated from the same time period (2-3kya).
We can also see that the proportion of non-African DNA in Somali is mostly female mediated.
This shows that the non-African gene flow in Somali was probably done through patrilocal intermarriage between indigenous Somali and ethio-semitic language speakers (or those admixed with them). It would explain why Somali have a much smaller proportion of non-African Y-DNA than mtDNA. It would also explain why they kept their cushitic language instead of switching to an ethio-semitic language. Why they look mostly African too. As patrilocal marriage is tend to keep the culture and language of the receiving party, the Y-DNA males in our cases, who are mostly, 84.6% African.
How is it possible the African component remained L solely? And never went beyond the mutation of L?
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posted
^^^ About the Aksum kingdom. Those admixture analysis are not very good at differentiating bi-directional gene-flows. The Aksumite kingdom can be a later more recent period of bi-directional gene-flow between Africans and non-Africans in that region.
But the dating of the Aksum kingdom is even more recent than the earliest substantial non-African gene-flow in Eastern Africa usually correlated to the spread of ethio-semitic language carriers in Africa (see Pagani, etc).
After the Aksum kingdom period there was also the Arab/Muslim conquests of Eastern and North Africa which also brought even more recent non-African gene flow into North and Eastern Africa.
All those more recent non-African gene-flow into Eastern Africa must also be taken into account.
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quote:Originally posted by Amun-Ra The Ultimate: ^^^ About the Aksum kingdom. Those admixture analysis are not very good at differentiating bi-directional gene-flows. The Aksumite kingdom can be a later more recent period of bi-directional gene-flow between Africans and non-Africans in that region.
But the dating of the Aksum kingdom is even more recent than the earliest substantial non-African gene-flow in Eastern Africa usually correlated to the spread of ethio-semitic language carriers in Africa.
After the Aksum kingdom period there always was the Arab/Muslim conquests which also brought even more recent non-African gene flow into North and Eastern Africa.
All those more recent non-African gene-flow into Eastern Africa must also be taken into account.
Yeah, the Islamic expansion played part as well in admixture. Ever since this expansion, Arabic tribes have been living in several parts of Africa, from what I know this includes the Horn. Also, the ancient population till recent was similar on both sides of the coasts. Similar in culture, similar in looks etc...many papers and documentation has stated that Yemen and Oman are an expansion of the Horn, East Africa.
Btw, I overlooked this part of the paper, on "Axum".
quote: While earlier scholarship conceived of a South Arabian origin D'MT polity with sovereignty over much of the northern HOA, it is now clear that this polity, if it ever existed at all as an integrated state [24], was geographically restricted to the regions around Yeha and Aksum in what is now the Tigray region of Ethiopia [25].
What do you think they mean by the Fulani, Maasai component cluster?
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quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor: ]What do you think they mean by the Fulani, Maasai component cluster? [/QB]
Isn't it a bit off topic since it's about the Horn of Africa populations? Fulani and Maasai while having some small but substantial non-African admixture, they always cluster much closer to African populations than non-African populations in term of genetic distances as we can see in the graph you posted.
quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor: ]What do you think they mean by the Fulani, Maasai component cluster?
Isn't it a bit off topic since it's about the Horn of Africa populations? Fulani and Maasai while having some small but substantial non-African admixture, they always cluster much closer to African populations than non-African populations in term of genetic distances as we can see in the graph you posted.
Fulani's are most widespread in Africa. The Fulani component in the Horn is Tukuler.
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posted
It's funny because when you read the study, you realize the author goes out of his way to try to prove his ancient non-African ethio-somali IAC hypothesis and overestimating the dating of the earliest substantial admixture events with non-African populations in Eastern Africa. The ethio-somali IAC is a most probably a mix of structuring among African populations in East Africa and recent bi-directional gene-flow with non-African populations. Other previous studies based on the same HOA SNP dataset, didn't find any such ancient non-African cluster and all came up with the earliest dating for non-African gene flow into East Africa at around 2-3kya. Consistent with archaeological and historic records (Dʿmt, Christianity, Muslim conquests, etc) and the spread of ethio-semitic speakers in the East African region.
Earlier this year (January 2014), Pickrell et.al released an analysis of the same HOA SNP dataset than Pagani and came up with similar results as the Pagani study. :
quote:Back-to-Africa Gene Flow in Eastern Africa.
A major open question concerns the initial source of the west Eurasian ancestry in eastern Africa. The estimated mean time of gene flow in eastern Africa is around 3,000 y ago , and the amount of gene flow must have been quite extensive, because the west Eurasian ancestry proportions reach 40–50% in some Ethiopian populations (Table 1 and ref. 10). Archaeological records from this region are sparse, so Pagani et al. (10) speculate that this admixture is related to the Biblical account of the Kingdom of Sheba. However, archaeological evidence is not completely absent. During this time period, architecture in the Ethiopian culture of D’mt has an “unmistakable South Arabian appearance in many details” (19), although there is some debate as to whether these patterns can be attributed to large movements of people versus elite-driven cultural practices (19, 20). Additionally, linguistic evidence suggests that this time period was when Ethiosemitic languages were introduced to Africa, presumably from southern Arabia (21). It is perhaps not a coincidence that the highest levels of west Eurasian ancestry in eastern Africa are found in the Amhara and Tygray, who speak Ethiosemitic languages and live in what was previously the territory of D’mt and the later kingdom of Aksum.
From Ancient west Eurasian ancestry in southern and eastern Africa by Joseph K. Pickrell (2014)
So the Pickrell study also determine the time of the earliest substantial non-African gene-flow into East Africa to be around 3.000 years ago. Again this is consistent with archaeological and historic records and the spread of ethio-semitic language carriers in Eastern Africa in the last 3000 years. As shown above even the fact that Somali population still carry 84.6% of African Y-DNA haplogroups is another indication of the nature of the relationship between East African populations and his also consistent with a dating of around between 2.000-3.000 years ago for the earliest substantial non-African gene into Eastern Africa.
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quote:Originally posted by Amun-Ra The Ultimate: It's funny because when you read the study, you realize the author goes out of his way to try to prove his ancient non-African ethio-somali IAC hypothesis and overestimating the dating of the earliest substantial admixture events with non-African populations in Eastern Africa. The ethio-somali IAC is a most probably a mix of structuring among African populations in East Africa and recent bi-directional gene-flow with non-African populations. Other previous studies based on the same HOA SNP dataset, didn't find any such ancient non-African cluster and all came up with the earliest dating for non-African gene flow into East Africa at around 2-3kya. Consistent with archaeological and historic records (Dʿmt, Christianity, Muslim conquests, etc) and the spread of ethio-semitic speakers in the East African region.
Earlier this year (January 2014), Pickrell et.al released an analysis of the same HOA SNP dataset than Pagani and came up with similar results as the Pagani study. :
quote:Back-to-Africa Gene Flow in Eastern Africa.
A major open question concerns the initial source of the west Eurasian ancestry in eastern Africa. The estimated mean time of gene flow in eastern Africa is around 3,000 y ago , and the amount of gene flow must have been quite extensive, because the west Eurasian ancestry proportions reach 40–50% in some Ethiopian populations (Table 1 and ref. 10). Archaeologicral records from this region are sparse, so Pagani et al. (10) speculate that this admixture is related to the Biblical account of the Kingdom of Sheba. However, archaeological evidence is not completely absent. During this time period, architecture in the Ethiopian culture of D’mt has an “unmistakable South Arabian appearance in many details” (19), although there is some debate as to whether these patterns can be attributed to large movements of people versus elite-driven cultural practices (19, 20). Additionally, linguistic evidence suggests that this time period was when Ethiosemitic languages were introduced to Africa, presumably from southern Arabia (21). It is perhaps not a coincidence that the highest levels of west Eurasian ancestry in eastern Africa are found in the Amhara and Tygray, who speak Ethiosemitic languages and live in what was previously the territory of D’mt and the later kingdom of Aksum.
From Ancient west Eurasian ancestry in southern and eastern Africa by Joseph K. Pickrell (2014)
So the Pickrell study also determine the time of the earliest substantial non-African gene-flow into East Africa to be around 3.000 years ago. Again this is consistent with archaeological and historic records and the spread of ethio-semitic language carriers in Eastern Africa in the last 3000 years. As shown above even the fact that Somali population still carry 84.6% of African Y-DNA haplogroups is another indication of the nature of the relationship between East African populations and his also consistent with a dating of around between 2.000-3.000 years ago for the earliest substantial non-African gene into Eastern Africa.
I've seen your posts on the Bio Diversety forum, in search of more about this study. See, I told you how Horn people reasoned to these type of "so called studies" on Horn people. They responded with the obvious resentment.
Anyway, I noticed this part:
quote: because the west Eurasian ancestry proportions reach 40–50% in some Ethiopian populations (Table 1 and ref. 10).
I wonder who these "some populations" are, are these the Arab immigrants?
They write in odd ways when it comes to the Horn of Africa. When you read racist 19th, 20th century history books you'll find similar theories. Most of it is bolstered by Italian writers (historians), during the colonization of the Horn, by Italy. We however don't read this in the paper by these authors, which speaks a lot of volumes, the view these authors have on The Horn Of Africa history.
But it's cool they decided to show a classical reference:
21. Conti Rossini C (1928) Storia D'Etiopia. Bergamo: Istituto Italiano d'Arti Grafiche.Posts: 22235 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor: Anyway, I noticed this part:
quote: because the west Eurasian ancestry proportions reach 40–50% in some Ethiopian populations (Table 1 and ref. 10).
I wonder who these "some populations" are, are these the Arab immigrants?
This West Eurasian ancestry proportion would come mainly from the immigration and spreading of Ethio-semitic and Arabic speakers (and populations admixed with them) in the Horn of Africa in the last 3000 years. Somalian have a low proportion of such west asian and non-African Y-DNA haplogroups.
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xyyman wonders generally about what could explain a given population having paternal DNA from one geographic location yet that same popualtion having maternal DNA from another geographic location, what might explain such a thing
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quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor: Anyway, I noticed this part:
quote: because the west Eurasian ancestry proportions reach 40–50% in some Ethiopian populations (Table 1 and ref. 10).
I wonder who these "some populations" are, are these the Arab immigrants?
This West Eurasian ancestry proportion would come mainly from the immigration and spreading of Ethio-semitic and Arabic speakers (and populations admixed with them) in the Horn of Africa in the last 3000 years. Somalian have a low proportion of such west asian and non-African Y-DNA haplogroups.
You have different Somali clan branches. Of which do you speak?
And were there any "Arab mixed" tribes included? That is what I'm wondering about. They don't seem to talk a lot about this, in this particular "paper".
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quote:Originally posted by the lioness,: what about Somali mtDNA ?
xyyman wonders generally about what could explain a given population having paternal DNA from one geographic location yet that same popualtion having maternal DNA from another geographic location, what might explain such a thing
Wasn't this addressed already, several times?
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Professor Chris Tyler-Smith of the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in Cambridge, UK, a researcher on the study, told BBC News: "Genetics can tell us about historical events. "By analysing the genetics of Ethiopia and several other regions we can see that there was gene flow into Ethiopia, probably from the Levant, around 3,000 years ago, and this fits perfectly with the story of the Queen of Sheba."
Abstract Abstract• Introduction• Results• Discussion• Methods• Additional information• References• Acknowledgements• Author information• Supplementary information Southern and eastern African populations that speak non-Bantu languages with click consonants are known to harbour some of the most ancient genetic lineages in humans, but their relationships are poorly understood. Here, we report data from 23 populations analysed at over half a million single-nucleotide polymorphisms, using a genome-wide array designed for studying human history. The southern African Khoisan fall into two genetic groups, loosely corresponding to the northwestern and southeastern Kalahari, which we show separated within the last 30,000 years. We find that all individuals derive at least a few percent of their genomes from admixture with non-Khoisan populations that began ~1,200 years ago. In addition, the East African Hadza and Sandawe derive a fraction of their ancestry from admixture with a population related to the Khoisan, supporting the hypothesis of an ancient link between southern and eastern Africa.
Ethiopian Genetic Diversity Reveals Linguistic Stratification and Complex Influences on the Ethiopian Gene Pool
Luca Pagani, 2012
Humans and their ancestors have traversed the Ethiopian landscape for millions of years, and present-day Ethiopians show great cultural, linguistic, and historical diversity, which makes them essential for understanding African variability and human origins. We genotyped 235 individuals from ten Ethiopian and two neighboring (South Sudanese and Somali) populations on an Illumina Omni 1M chip. Genotypes were compared with published data from several African and non-African populations. Principal-component and STRUCTURE-like analyses confirmed substantial genetic diversity both within and between populations, and revealed a match between genetic data and linguistic affiliation. Using comparisons with African and non-African reference samples in 40-SNP genomic windows, we identified “African” and “non-African” haplotypic components for each Ethiopian individual. The non-African component, which includes the SLC24A5 allele associated with light skin pigmentation in Europeans, may represent gene flow into Africa, which we estimate to have occurred ∼3 thousand years ago (kya). The non-African component was found to be more similar to populations inhabiting the Levant rather than the Arabian Peninsula, but the principal route for the expansion out of Africa ∼60 kya remains unresolved. Linkage-disequilibrium decay with genomic distance was less rapid in both the whole genome and the African component than in southern African samples, suggesting a less ancient history for Ethiopian populations.
Source of the Major Out-of-Africa Migration
Consistent with previous studies' reports of a steady decline in genetic similarity among non-African populations as a function of geographical traveling distance from East Africa, we found that the FST values estimated between either Ethiopian or North African populations and non-African populations followed the same pattern (Figure 2, Table S2). This steady decline has been argued27 to be compatible with a single exit followed by isolation-by-distance, rather than with two distinct African sources contributing to the non-African diversity. Neither including nor excluding the Ethiopian data altered the pattern. To follow the thread left by this dispersal in more detail, we used the genome partitioning performed earlier to calculate the minimum pairwise difference between the African component of the Egyptian and Ethiopian populations and the equivalent genomic segment in non-Africans. The partitioning would remove noise, caused by recent backflows into Africa, which might otherwise mask the original out-of-Africa signal. If the mouth of the Red Sea had been a major migration route out of Africa, we might observe a closer affinity of Ethiopians, rather than Egyptians, with non-Africans.
As a proof of principle, we first applied the approach to a genetic system with a well-understood phylogeographic structure: mtDNA. Virtually all indigenous sub-Saharan African mtDNA lineages belong to L haplogroups, whereas the presence of haplogroups M and N in North and East Africa has been interpreted as a signal of gene flow back to Africa.48,49 With the full set of 18 mtDNA SNPs used in our genome-wide data set, Egyptians and Moroccans proved to be the closest African population to any non-African population examined (Table 2A). However, when we first partitioned the mtDNA lineages into African and non-African (i.e., L and non-L) and considered only the L component, a different pattern emerged: Ethiopians were the closest population to the non-Africans (Table 2B), consistent with inferences drawn from more detailed mtDNA analyses.5
Applying the same principle, we then calculated the shortest distance between the African and non-African populations on the basis of either full genome data or the African component of this data set. In contrast to the mtDNA results, the Egyptians proved to be the closest to the non-Africans in both cases (Tables 2A and 2B).
Discussion We present an extensive genome-wide data set representing Ethiopian geographical, linguistic, and ethnic diversity. Its study has allowed us to cast light on a number of questions, some long-standing, about both ancient and recent demographic events in human evolution. In the Discussion, we again follow a roughly chronological path from the more recent to the older events.
The Ethiopian populations show high genetic diversity, with stratification matching the linguistic families (Figure 1B), except for the overlap in both PCA and FST analyses of populations belonging to two mutually unintelligible linguistic groups (Semitic and Cushitic). This overlap reflects both the similar amount of non-African genome present in these individuals and the similar African component (Figures 1C and 1E). It may also reflect factors such as the recent expansion of some Cushitic and Semitic groups and landscape such as highland and lowland environments. Of particular interest is the distinctiveness of the Omotic groups, whose position in Figures 1A and S3 is intriguingly compatible with being a putative ancestral Ethiopian population. One insight provided by the ADMIXTURE plot (Figure 1C) concerns the origin of the Ari Blacksmiths. This population is one of the occupational caste-like groups present in many Ethiopian societies that have traditionally been explained as either remnants of hunter-gatherer groups assimilated by the expansion of farmers in the Neolithic period or as groups marginalized in agriculturalist communities due to their craft skills.51 The prevalence of an Ethiopian-specific cluster (yellow in Figure 1C) in the Ari Blacksmith sample could favor the former scenario; the ancestors of this occupational group could have been part of a population that inhabited the area before the spread of agriculturalists. Further study of multiple groups comparing agriculturists and caste-like groups would reveal whether there is a pattern of a greater Ethiopia-specific genomic profile associated with caste-like occupations, an observation which would support the absorption rather than the exclusion hypothesis.
ADMIXTURE analyses revealed a major (40%–50%) contribution to the Ethiopian Semitic-Cushitic genomes that is similar to that of non-African populations. Our estimates of genetic similarity between this component and extant non-African populations suggest that the source was more likely the Levant than the Arabian Peninsula. We estimate that this admixture event took place approximately 3 kya. The more recent admixture dates for the Oromo and Afar can be explained by the effect of a subsequent Islamic expansion that particularly impacted these groups, as well as the North Africans.52 Levant people may have arrived in Ethiopia via land or sea subsequently, leaving a similar signature also in modern Egyptians, or the similarity between Ethiopians and Egyptians may be a consequence of independent genetic relationships. This putative migration from the Levant to Ethiopia, which is also supported by linguistic evidence, may have carried the derived western Eurasian allele of SLC24A5, which is associated with light skin pigmentation. Although potentially disadvantageous due to the high intensity of UV radiation in the area, the SLC24A5 allele has maintained a substantial frequency in the Semitic-Cushitic populations, perhaps driven by social factors including sexual selection. The “African” component of the Ethiopian genomes may also result in part from recent migrations into Ethiopia from other parts of Africa, a possibility that we have not examined here.
The estimated time (3 kya) and the geographic origin (the Levant) of the gene flow into Ethiopia are consistent with both the model of Early Bronze Age origins of Semitic languages and the reported age estimate (2.8 kya) of the Ethio-Semitic language group.23 They are also consistent with the legend of Makeda, the Queen of Sheba. According to the version recorded in the Ethiopian Kebra Nagast (a traditional Ethiopian book on the origins of the kings), this influential Ethiopian queen (who, according to Hansberry,53 reigned between 1005 and 955 BCE) visited King Solomon—ruler, in biblical tradition, of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah—bringing back, in addition to important trading links, a son. The ancient kingdom of Axum adopted Christianity as early as the fourth century. Historical contacts established between Ethiopia and the Middle East were maintained across the centuries, with the Ethiopian church in regular contact with Alexandria, Egypt. These long-lasting links between the two regions are reflected in influences still apparent in the modern Ethiopian cultural and, as we show here, genetic landscapes.
An abundance of evidence suggests that all modern non-Africans descend predominantly from a single African source via a dispersal event some 50 to 70 kya.6,7,27,49 However, debate continues about whether the principal migratory route out of Africa was north of the Red Sea to the Levant, or across its mouth to the Arabian Peninsula. The actual source of the migrations within Africa is a different question, but we assume that the migrators would have left genetic signatures in Egypt if they took the northern route or in Ethiopia if they took the southern route. We chose reference non-African populations along the two putative routes. However, both the northern and eastern Africans have genetic distances (FST) that gradually increase with geographic distance along both routes. This also holds true when Ethiopian populations that show little evidence of recent non-African gene flow (Omotic and Nilotic) are used as a source. A minimum-pairwise-distance measure based on the African component of the genome found that the Ethiopian mtDNA component was closer to non-African populations than was the Egyptian mtDNA component, as previously reported,50 but that the autosomal genome of non-Africans was closer to the African component of the Egyptian rather than Ethiopian populations. This could be interpreted as supporting a northern exit route. However, the 80% non-African proportion of the Egyptian genome (Figure 1C) reduces the power of our comparisons and, taken together with the requirement for the African state in at least ten chromosomes, means that this conclusion is based on just ~1,800 SNPs (compared to 18,960 for the Ethiopians, 30,798 for the Mozabite, and 5,920 for the Moroccans). Therefore, the question requires further investigation beyond the scope of the present study.
On a broader time scale, the LD analyses pointed to click speakers, Pygmies, and a Nigerian-Congolese group as all having a deeper population history than both the whole genome and the African component of the East Africans sampled. Although this result might seem inconsistent with the outstanding fossil record available from Ethiopia, it may illustrate that genetic diversity assessed from modern populations does not necessarily represent their long-term demographic histories at the site. Alternatively, the rich record of human fossil ancestors in Ethiopia, and indeed along the Rift Valley, may reflect biases of preservation and discovery, with more fossils being exposed in regions of geological activity. Fluctuations in effective population size in the past and dispersals within Africa may have further confounded our analyses and their correlation with the fossil record. The fact that the observed genetic diversity in Ethiopia is lower than in some other African populations does not negate the possibility that Ethiopia was the cradle of anatomically modern humans. However, interpretations of the LD-based analyses may be challenged by future work in two key respects. First, whole-genome sequences can provide an independent measure of the demographic history of the groups studied,54 but they have not yet been applied to Ethiopian samples. Second, there is a need for a better understanding of the implication for the genomic recombination landscape of the observed allelic differences in PRDM9 (MIM 609760).55 The higher frequencies of the active allele reported for the West African Yoruba compared with the Eastern African Maasai might therefore imply the need for rethinking the direct correlation between LD patterns and population age.
In conclusion, Ethiopian SNP genotypes give insights into evolutionary questions on several timescales. Whether or not modern Ethiopians can be identified as the best living representatives of an ancestral human population, or even of the out-of-Africa movement, the data presented here reveal imprints of historical events that accompanied the formation of the rich cultural and genetic diversity observed in the area. Furthermore, we observe strong genetic structuring in East Africa, including a strong match between the linguistic and genetic structures. This is exemplified by the three distinct PC clusters (Omotic, Nilotic, and Semitic-Cushitic), confirming Ethiopia as one of the most diverse African regions.
quote: The L374F polymorphism of the SLC45A2 gene, encoding the membrane-associated transporter protein that plays an important role in melanin synthesis, has been suggested to be associated with skin color in human populations. In this study, the detailed distribution of the 374f and 374l alleles has been investigated in 2,581 unrelated subjects from 36 North, East, West, and Central African populations. We found once more the highly significant (p 0.001) correlation coefficient (r = 0.957) cline of 374f frequencies with degrees of latitude in European and North African populations. Almost all the African populations located below 16° of latitude are fixed for the 374l allele. Peul, Toucouleur, and Soninké populations have 374l allele frequencies of 0.06, 0.03, and 0.03, respectively.
Near Fixation of 374l Allele Frequencies of the Skin Pigmentation Gene SLC45A2 in Africa
quote:The two genes SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 were recently identified as major determinants of pigmentation in humans and in other vertebrates. The allele p.A111T in the former gene and the allele p.L374F in the latter gene are both nearly fixed in light-skinned Europeans, and can therefore be considered ancestry informative marker (AIMs). AIMs are becoming useful for forensic identification of the phenotype from a DNA profile sampled, for example, from a crime scene. Here, we generate new allelic data for these two genes from samples of Chinese, Uygurs, Ghanaians, South African Xhosa, South African Europeans, and Sri Lankans (Tamils and Sinhalese). Our data confirm the earlier results and furthermore demonstrate that the SLC45A2 allele is a more specific AIM than the SLC24A5 allele because the former clearly distinguishes the Sri Lankans from the Europeans. Authors
--Soejima M, Koda Y, Population differences of two coding SNPs in pigmentation-related genes SLC24A5 and SLC45A2.
quote: These results argue for an independent evolution of lighter skin in European and East Asian populations. To further test the hypothesis that SLC24A5 has been shaped by positive directional selection in European (but not East Asian) populations we sequenced 4.8 kb of SLC24A5 spanning a 20 kb region in a geographically diverse panel of human populations representing Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
--Patterns of sequence variation in the human pigmentation candidate gene SLC24A5. H. Norton, M. Hammer. ARL-Biotechnology, Univ Arizona, Tucson, AZ.
quote:To gain insight into when and where this mutation arose, we defined common haplotypes in the genomic region around SLC24A5 across diverse human populations and deduced phylogenetic relationships between them. Virtually all chromosomes carrying the A111T allele share a single 78-kb haplotype that we call C11, indicating that all instances of this mutation in human populations share a common origin
quote: A multivariate analysis of four prehistoric and nine historic populations from the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands with large sample sizes (n > 30 individuals for the neurocranium and n > 15 for the facial skeleton) is presented, considering 874 male and 557 female skulls and using 20 craniometric measurements. Cluster analyses have been undertaken using the squared Euclidean distance as a measure of proximity and the average linkage between groups (UPGMA), and neighbor-joining algorithms as a branching method, and a bootstrap analysis was used to assess the robustness of the clustering topology. The study was complemented with a principal coordinate analysis and with the application of the Mantel test to measure the degree of correspondence between the information furnished by the female and the male samples. The analyses show that the main source of morphometric variability in the Iberian Peninsula is the Basque population. The second source of variation is provided by two populations (Muslims and Jews), different from the rest from an archaeological and cultural point of view, and can probably be attributed to influences from sub-Saharan Africa. The massive deportations of the Jews in 1492 and of the Moors between the 15th and 17th centuries may have erased this source of variability from the present population of the Iberian Peninsula. The remaining studied populations, including samples from Castile, Cantabria, Andalusia, Catalonia and Balearic Islands, are grouped together, showing a notable morphological homogeneity, despite their temporal and geographic heterogeneity. These results are in general agreement with those obtained in synthetic maps, by analyzing multiple genetic markers. In such studies, the Basque population is described as the main source of genetic variability, not only in the Iberian Peninsula, but also in Western Europe.
Am J Phys Anthropol. 1996 Mar;99(3):413-28.
Cranial variation in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands: inferences about the history of the population.
Fox et. al
quote: The presence of almost 50% of sub-Saharan lineages L1b, L2 and L3 in Abauntz Chalcolithic deposits and Tres Montes, in Navarre, suggests the existence of an important gene flow from Africa to this geographic region.
The low frequency of these lineages in the current Spanish population indicates that it has gene produced a replacement from the Chalcolithic period.
The entry of African lineages could occur during the Paleolithic, during the Neolithic period, or during both periods.
The phylogenetically related sequences present in the Chalcolithic deposit Iberian Peninsula and Neolithic and Chalcolithic samples of the Middle East points to Neolithic as most likely time of entry into the peninsula of these lineages.
Description: SUMMARY OF DOCTORAL THESIS The origins of European populations have been addressed from different disciplines, highlighting the contribution of population genetics studies. Shuffle two moments in prehistory in which it has been possible to model the gene pool of populations in Europe: the spread of Neolithic and Palaeolithic period expansions. The ability to recover from bygone population genetics provides a unique opportunity to test the assumptions made in situ from other disciplines. We studied 197 samples from 115 dental and bone individuals 17 archaeological sites Sumerian Neolithic and Middle East, when Meroitic Nubia and Paleolithic era, post-Neolithic and Neolithic of the Iberian Peninsula. We obtained complete sequences of mitochondrial DNA of 244 bp of 35 different individuals, were compared with sequences from the same region of present individuals from 38 populations in Europe, Africa and Middle East. In phylogenetic reconstructions based on Reynolds distance groups of ancient samples are grouped together, separated from the rest of current populations. However, phylogenetic reconstructions made from the haplotypes of ancient and modern samples denote that although the majority of ancient mitochondrial variants are not present in current populations sampled, may relate more or less closely with them. The composition of haplotypes and haplogroups of ancient samples from the Near East and the Iberian Peninsula differs markedly from that found in the current populations of these geographical regions. In the ancient Middle East show highlights in particular the absence of mitochondrial haplogroup J, U3, W and X, associated with the Neolithic expansion into Europe. This may be due either to the sample obtained is not old chronologically or geographically-representative populations of the Middle East that spread during the Neolithic well that these variants were not introduced in Europe during the Neolithic. In the ancient sample of the Iberian Peninsula highlights the presence of 50% of sub-Saharan lines. These lines may have been introduced during the Solutrean, the Mesolithic or Neolithic. This work also delved into various technical aspects of obtaining authentic ancient DNA and the influence of several variables in the preservation of genetic material. ABSTRACT The origins of the European Populations Studied extensively from Have Been Different disciplines. It is Thought That ancient demic expansions, like occurred After the Late Those Glacial Maximum or DURING the Middle East from neolithic diffussion to Europe. The Possibility to recover DNA from past Populations offers an unique Opportunity to test in situ These hypothesis. 197 It Were Analyzed teeth and bones from 115 individuos Archaeological Sites and 17 Different from Middle East and the Iberian Peninsula. It WAS possible to recover mitochondrial DNA sequences 244pb-35 from Different Individuals. They Were 38 Compared to sequences from European, African and Middle Eastern Populations present-day. Phylogenetic Reconstructions from Reynolds genetic distance Showed That ancient samples clustered together, extant from Clearly Separated Populations. Howeve, based phylogenetic Reconstructions on ancient and modern mitochondrial haplotypes Showed That ancient haplotypes are related to extant ones. Haplotype frequencies and haplogroup in samples from the ancient Middle East and the Iberian Peninsula are Different from Those Clearly present in the Same Geographical Nowadays regions. Haplogroups related to J neolithic expansion to Europe, U3, W and X-are absent in ancient middle eastern sample. There are two possible Explanations to this fact. First, It Could Be That the ancient samples possible Analyzed wont be representative of the Middle Eastern Populations That expanded the neolithic. Second, It Could Be That Those haplogroups Also possible wont Have Been made to them in Europe associated with expansions to neolithic demic. At This work It Were Also Examined technical Several Aspects related to the obtention of genuine ancient DNA and the Influence of Different variables in DNA preservation.
Polimorfismos de DNA mitocondrial en poblaciones antiguas de la cuenca mediterránea.
Fernández Domínguez, E. et al.
(2005)
Posts: 22235 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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Y'all do realize that these "non Africans" were black people still right? Some of y'all fall entirely too easy for these Eurocentric games (i.e. genetics) that they use to try to imply that non black people existed (unless albino) THAT LONG AGO...THEY ARE TRYING TO EQUATE ANCIENT POPULATIONS WITH THOSE MODERN POPULATIONS LIVING IN THE AREAS TODAY. That being said since everyone was black back then why the Hell does it matter whether or not that a gene mutated on the continent of Africa or Asia? THEY WERE ARE ALL BLACK PEOPLE and white people (the source of all non black people actually) did not exist until 6,600 years when they left their island.
white people (the source of all non black people actually) did not exist until 6,600 years when they left their island.
this is an anhropology website not that fairly tale Yakub religious nonsense
furthermore, this particular article was talking about a back migration 3,000 years ago, not 6,600 years ago
Posts: 42935 | From: , | Registered: Jan 2010
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"The record of this maternally inherited genetic group, called Haplogroup H, shows that the first farmers in Central Europe resulted from a wholesale cultural and genetic input via migration, beginning in Turkey and the Near East where farming originated and arriving in Germany around 7,500 years ago," says joint lead author Dr Paul Brotherton, formerly at ACAD and now at the University of Huddersfield, UK. ACAD Director Professor Alan Cooper says: "What is intriguing is that the genetic markers of this first pan-European culture, which was clearly very successful, were then suddenly replaced around 4,500 years ago, and we don't know why. Something major happened, and the hunt is now on to find out what that was."
"We have established that the genetic foundations for modern Europe were only established in the Mid-Neolithic, after this major genetic transition around 4,000 years ago," says Dr Haak. "This genetic diversity was then modified further by a series of incoming and expanding cultures from Iberia and Eastern Europe through the Late Neolithic." "The expansion of the Bell Beaker culture (named after their pots) appears to have been a key event, emerging in Iberia around 2800 BC and arriving in Germany several centuries later," says Dr Brotherton. "This is a very interesting group as they have been linked to the expansion of Celtic languages along the Atlantic coast and into central Europe."
The team has been working closely on the genetic prehistory of Europeans for the past 7-8 years.
Bu... bu...but, the Cro Magnon are extinct. Was there a population replacement, in Europe?
quote:Lalueza-Fox states: "However, the biggest surprise was to discover that this individual possessed African versions in the genes that determine the light pigmentation of the current Europeans, which indicates that he had dark skin, although we can not know the exact shade."
quote: "A team of scientists has tracked down a genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. The mutation occurred between 6,000 and 10,000 years ago, so before then, there were no blue eyes."
quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor: Bu... bu...but, the Cro Magnon are extinct. Was there a population replacement, in Europe?
Most scientists believe that much of Western Europe became depopulated after the last ice age (LGM) due to temperature drop
Many also believe that many of them went to southern Europe during this period
During this time they may also have undergone further genetic changes.
This would be one of the three populations that Lazaridis believes are ancestral to modern Europeans
Nevertheless not every recent article dovetails, some have other viewpoints on replacement and "basal" populations, not eveything corresponds
When you consider any recent article on replacement remember to look at where they think the replacement popualtion comes from
Posts: 42935 | From: , | Registered: Jan 2010
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Lioness bitch you know I'm telling the truth...
The Messenger's teaching on Yakub:
“When they make mockery of what God has revealed to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad, they say that Yakub was an evil scientist. Wrong!Yakub was a scientist who saw in the genetic makeup of the Black man that he could bring out of us a new people, the opposite of the original. That is not evil. That is high science.”
Since the June release of The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews, Vol. 2, Ashkenazi (or White European) Jews have scrambled to create a diversion away from the unanswerable 512-page indictment by ridiculing the history of Yakub. The latest open attack was orchestrated by the ADL's Abraham Foxman, with the milquetoast acquiescence of radio host Michael Eric Dyson. Foxman brought along with him the disaffected negro Judeophile Stanley Crouch to defend him against The Minister's crushing indictments revealed in The Secret Relationship. Foxman had Crouch to question The Messenger's teaching about the origin of the White man, but all that Crouch could muster was the following: “You can't call Farrakhan a truth teller—a guy who has a, has a religion, purportedly, based upon the idea that the White man was invented 6,000 years ago by a mad Black scientist.” That sentence is the substance of his entire challenge to the Yakub story. So, let us look into Crouch's concerns.
The Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches that the White man first appeared 6,000 years ago on the Island of Patmos (or Pelan), in the Aegean Sea, where they had been “made” by a 600-year process of selective breeding called “grafting.” Under the auspices of a brilliant Black scientist named Yakub, and by divine authority of Allah Himself, the Blacks who came with Yakub to the island were placed under a system of laws by which mating was based on skin color and in which only lighter-complexioned babies were allowed to survive. Over the course of many generations, the population of Patmos began to grow lighter and lighter until, after 600 years of this dedicated grafting process, the people became very pale with blue eyes and blonde hair. From this island-based tribe of white-skinned albinos came an aggressive race of rulers who then spread into every corner of the world—namely, the Caucasians, who now represent 9 percent of the world population (that's 1 in every 11 human beings).
But The Messenger is not the only source to address the origin of the White race. There are many echoes of this account chronicled by other histories, religions, and folklores, including Judaism. The ancient rabbis use the biblical account of Jacob's grafted flocks of sheep and goat to bear witness to the teachings of Mr. Muhammad. Genesis 30:35 says that Jacob (English translation of the name Yakub) was able to produce unusually colored livestock through the use of a skillful breeding technique. Significantly, it took Jacob six years to successfully change the color of the flock (Genesis 31:41). The book of Jewish traditions called the Midrash Rabbah actually uses this Bible story to explain the birth of White children to Black parents. The rabbis present this parable :
The king of the Arabs put this question to Rabbi Akiba: “I am Black and my wife is Black, yet she gave birth to a White son. Shall I kill her for having played the harlot while lying with me?” Said the other, “Are the figures in your house painted Black or White?” “White,” he said. The other assured him, “When you had intercourse with her, she fixed her eyes upon the White figures and bore a child like them.”
These Caucasian rabbis, who ALWAYS present themselves in their writings as superior to both the “Arab” and the Blacks, use this apocryphal passage to explain their own racial origin in terms of a breeding process.
And with the assistance of Lawrence Guthrie's powerful little book, The Making of The Whiteman, we are led to other more recent testimonials. The Baptist theologian Bernard L. Ramm explained:
By scientific breeding we can shuffle these genes with their characteristics and breed traits in or breed them out. ...The laws of heredity plus principles of separation or selection operating over a period of time will produce the various races of the world.
But religious leaders are not the only ones alluding to a created man. Men of science have also grappled with what they saw as the unusual appearance of this odd human anomaly, the White man. The Dutch anatomist Lodewijk “Louis” Bolk wrote in Origin of Racial Characteristics in Man, “White skin ... started from an ancestor with a black skin, in whose offspring hair and iris color were suppressed more and more.”
The notable English naturalist Charles Darwin concluded that without some form of selective breeding, such skin color differences simply “cannot be accounted for in a satisfactory manner”:
“We have thus far been baffled in all our attempts to account for the differences between the races of man; but there remains one important agency, namely, Sexual Selection, which appears to have acted as powerfully on man as on many other animals.”
The English physician James Cowles Prichard likewise concluded that the physical differences between the races of man could only have resulted from a method comparable to “the process of artificial selection carried on by plant and animal breeders.” It seems, he said “probable that the fairest races of White people of Europe, are descended from … Negroes.”
American biologist Dr. Edwin Grant Conklin wrote in The Evolution of Man:
t is evident that distinct races could not have been established and perpetuated except by the aid of isolation, chiefly geographical.
[I]The ancient Egyptians worried about an immigrant-tribe of blue-eyed people among them that seemed to have a proclivity for trouble-making. They had red or blonde hair and blue eyes and lived at the edge of the desert. The Egyptians called them Tamahu—the created ones—a clear allusion to their unnatural origins. More recently, a Jewish scientist at the University of Copenhagen confirmed that all blue-eyed humans have a single, common ancestor. Dr. Hans Eiberg refers to this condition as a “genetic mutation” and he says it occurred 6-10 thousand years ago. According to Mr. Elijah Muhammad this is EXACTLY when Mr. Yakub's work began on Patmos! Further, Dr. Eiberg and his team found a specific gene, known as the OCA2 gene, which if altered would result in human beings without melanin in their hair, eyes, or skin color—a condition known as albinism. Thus, this OCA2 gene was targeted and manipulated by some force or event around 6,000+ years ago.
In a 2006 New York Times article is yet more proof of a drastic alteration of genetic structure within this 6,000-year time frame. It reported that researchers at the University of Chicago had found “where genes appear to have been reshaped by natural selection …within the last 5,000 to 15,000 years.” Incredibly, Dr. Jonathan Pritchard estimates that the point in time when the genes of the Asian and European populations were altered was 6,600 years ago—the exact date that The Messenger said that Mr. Yakub began his grafting process! The scientists say that “the selected genes, which affect skin color, hair texture and bone structure, may underlie the present-day differences in racial appearance.” How exactly they were “selected,” why, and by whom or by what process the scientist cannot or will not say, but in a human timeline of millions of years this recent genetic alteration is drastic indeed and suggests a purpose-driven effort to create this incredible change.
These are extraordinary testaments to the truth taught by the Most Hon. Elijah Muhammad, and believe it or not, none of the aforementioned witness-bearers have ever been members of the Nation of Islam. These scientific sources have never been impeached or even interrogated by the mischievous voices of mockery that have yet to account for the independent findings of all these White scientists. Despite the recent radio hijinks of Foxman and crew, it is the truths revealed by The Messenger and his most powerful Servant, The Hon. Minister Louis Farrakhan, which are vindicated by science, and that still stand alone.
Just like I said these genetics test are all illusions to mask the truth of the matter. PS. I'm not a Muslim either.
Notice the 666 number....The Devil aka the Narga "N-G-R" (aka "nigga")...aka the return of the pharaoh who was worshipped as what back in the day?...God.
Believe these white lies if you want to. The Tetrad blood moon occurred in 1492 which is when the Moors were finally repelled from Spain and the Hebrews left as well. This year also marked the year Columbus being sailed to America (by a Moor) and the murder of 100 million Native Americans. This one now represents the reversal of the white bullshit, which is what Revelations in the New Testament is really about (which is based on the older black bird prophecy...you can guess what that means).
Funny thing is that many of the founding fathers of the nation WERE NOT CHRISTIAN and knew very well about this prophecy and the destruction of America based on it's evil (genocide and slavery). :
quote: And can the liberties of a nation be thought secure when we have removed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of the people that these liberties are of the gift of God? That they are not to be violated but with his wrath? Indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just: that his justice cannot sleep for ever: that considering numbers, nature and natural means only, a revolution of the wheel of fortune, an exchange of situation, is among possible events: that it may become probable by supernatural interference! The Almighty has no attribute which can take side with us in such a contest.
The black people (the chosen people) will rise from their oppressive state starting with the blacks here in America. The Greatest boxer known as Ali mentioned this prophecy in an interview decades ago.
Minus the white girl playing the pharaoh Katy Perry and Juicy J (666 mafia...R.I.P scarecrow) are telling you what's about to happen in the dark horse video:
posted
^^^ Can you reduce the size of your pics, they are too large. We can't read the lines without scrolling. Thank you.
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quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor: Bu... bu...but, the Cro Magnon are extinct. Was there a population replacement, in Europe?
Most scientists believe that much of Western Europe became depopulated after the last ice age (LGM) due to temperature drop
Many also believe that many of them went to southern Europe during this period
During this time they may also have undergone further genetic changes.
This would be one of the three populations that Lazaridis believes are ancestral to modern Europeans
Nevertheless not every recent article dovetails, some have other viewpoints on replacement and "basal" populations, not eveything corresponds
When you consider any recent article on replacement remember to look at where they think the replacement popualtion comes from
I notice the word believe is being used allot.
You said, "Western Europe became depopulated after the last ice age (LGM)". Are you sure it became "depopulated", instead of populated? And of whom do you speak here, exactly?
You then state: "Many also believe that many of them went to southern Europe during this period". But, from where did "many of them" come in the first place, and who do you mean by " many of them"?
Then you say: "during this time they may also have undergone further genetic changes. Of which genetic changes do you speak? Can you be more specific?
And of "which three populations" do you speak exactly. Can you be specific. So we all know what we are talking about, and refer to?
Thank in advance.
Posts: 22235 | From: האם אינכם כילדי הכרית אלי בני ישראל | Registered: Nov 2010
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quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor:
quote:Originally posted by the lioness,:
quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor: Bu... bu...but, the Cro Magnon are extinct. Was there a population replacement, in Europe?
Most scientists believe that much of Western Europe became depopulated after the last ice age (LGM) due to temperature drop
Many also believe that many of them went to southern Europe during this period
During this time they may also have undergone further genetic changes.
This would be one of the three populations that Lazaridis believes are ancestral to modern Europeans
Nevertheless not every recent article dovetails, some have other viewpoints on replacement and "basal" populations, not eveything corresponds
When you consider any recent article on replacement remember to look at where they think the replacement popualtion comes from
I notice the word believe is being used allot.
You said, "Western Europe became depopulated after the last ice age (LGM)". Are you sure it became "depopulated", instead of populated? And of whom do you speak here, exactly?
You then state: "Many also believe that many of them went to southern Europe during this period". But, from where did "many of them" come in the first place, and who do you mean by " many of them"?
Then you say: "during this time they may also have undergone further genetic changes. Of which genetic changes do you speak? Can you be more specific?
And of "which three populations" do you speak exactly. Can you be specific. So we all know what we are talking about, and refer to?
Thank in advance.
S/he will not answer these questions because all the populations were Black.
Europe was not depopulated most of Black Europeans fled inside the caves and became depigmented.
quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor:
You said, "Western Europe became depopulated after the last ice age (LGM)". Are you sure it became "depopulated", instead of populated? And of whom do you speak here, exactly?
You then state: "Many also believe that many of them went to southern Europe during this period". But, from where did "many of them" come in the first place, and who do you mean by " many of them"?
First Human beings migrated to Europe, approximately 35-45 K. They entered in Northern Europe and had come in from across Russia, before that they were in Central Asia, before that the Middle East. before that Africa also Neanderthal admixture discovered in modern human DNA The admixture would have had to have occurred in this period, the Neanderthals died out 32-33 K. In the East it was a similar to neanderthal hominid the Denisova and some Oceanic people have as much as 5.5% Densiova ancestry. Not to be confused with Homo heidelbergensis which is an earlier hominid thought to be ancestor to both humans and Neanderthals
LGM Ice age happened between 26,500 and 19,000–20,000 years ago
So before 26,500 humans were living in Western Europe. At that point 26,500 temperatures dropped drastically influencing people to go south Others may have starved to death - Depopulation of some of Europe I say "many of them went to southern Europe" because who could be sure that a few didn't remain somewhere in Central Europe if there wasn't an ice sheet there and if they weren't in the coldest parts
Then after 19,000 years ago some of these populations who had left the Central and North regions returned to those regions, others remained in Southern Europe
Farmers from Anatolia/Near East then came into Central Europe around 7-10,000 years ago
They were thought to be replaced by some of the people who had stayed in the South (Bell beakers)
"Researchers suggest that human populations over the past 50,000 years have changed from dark-skinned to light-skinned and vice versa as they migrated to different UV zones, and that such major changes in pigmentation may have happened in as little as 100 generations (~2,500 years) through selective sweeps."
quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor:
Then you say: "during this time they may also have undergone further genetic changes. Of which genetic changes do you speak? Can you be more specific?
"LGM glaciers forced early human populations who had originally migrated from northeast Siberia into refugia, reshaping their genetic variation through mutation and drift. This phenomenon established the older haplogroups found among Native Americans, whereas post-LGM migrations are responsible for northern North American haplogroups."
Also note European skulls from say, 35,000 yeas ago look different from skulls from say, 22 thousand years ago, that's evolution to adapt more to European environmental conditions
quote:Originally posted by Trollkillah # Ish Gebor:
And of "which three populations" do you speak exactly. Can you be specific. So we all know what we are talking about, and refer to?
Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans
40,000 years a long time A lot mutations can occur And in that time in Europe there were also dramatic climate changes which affect the natural selction process. Since humans entered Europe there have also been multiple migration waves into and out of Europe prbably resulting in various admixtures in the modern people today
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Since humans entered Europe there have also been multiple migration waves into and out of Europe prbably resulting in various admixtures in the modern people today
So then you agree with Cavalli-Sforza that Europeans are a population with as you say, "various admixtures" of African and Asian?
-------------------- Note: I am not an "Egyptologist" as claimed by some still bitter, defeated, trolls creating fake profiles and posts elsewhere. Hapless losers, you still fail. My output of hard data debunking racist nonsense has actually INCREASED since you began.. Posts: 5905 | From: The Hammer | Registered: Aug 2008
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quote:Originally posted by zarahan- aka Enrique Cardova: Since humans entered Europe there have also been multiple migration waves into and out of Europe prbably resulting in various admixtures in the modern people today
So then you agree with Cavalli-Sforza that Europeans are a population with as you say, "various admixtures" of African and Asian?
No, refer to the Lazaridis article
(furthermore above tree chart does not support such a conclusion and it shows the closest branch to Africans being Europeans
Neolithic mitochondrial haplogroup H genomes and the genetic origins of Europeans
Paul Brotherton, Wolfgang Haak, Jennifer Templeton, Guido Brandt, Julien Soubrier, Christina Jane Adler, Stephen M. Richards, doi:10.1038/ncomms2656 Received 20 September 2012 Accepted 27 February 2013 Published 23 April 2013
Haplogroup H dominates present-day Western European mitochondrial DNA variability (>40%), yet was less common (~19%) among Early Neolithic farmers (~5450 BC) and virtually absent in Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Here we investigate this major component of the maternal population history of modern Europeans and sequence 39 complete haplogroup H mitochondrial genomes from ancient human remains. We then compare this ‘real-time’ genetic data with cultural changes taking place between the Early Neolithic (~5450 BC) and Bronze Age (~2200 BC) in Central Europe. Our results reveal that the current diversity and distribution of haplogroup H were largely established by the Mid Neolithic (~4000 BC), but with substantial genetic contributions from subsequent pan-European cultures such as the Bell Beakers expanding out of Iberia in the Late Neolithic (~2800 BC). Dated haplogroup H genomes allow us to reconstruct the recent evolutionary history of haplogroup H and reveal a mutation rate 45% higher than current estimates for human mitochondria.
From around 2800 BC, the LNE Bell Beaker culture emerged from the Iberian Peninsula to form one of the first pan-European archaeological complexes. This cultural phenomenon is recognised by a distinctive package of rich grave goods including the eponymous bell-shaped ceramic beakers. The genetic affinities between Central Europe’s Bell Beakers and present-day Iberian populations (Fig. 2) is striking and throws fresh light on long-disputed archaeological models3. We suggest these data indicate a considerable genetic influx from the West during the LNE. These far-Western genetic affinities of Mittelelbe-Saale’s Bell Beaker folk may also have intriguing linguistic implications, as the archaeologically-identified eastward movement of the Bell Beaker culture has recently been linked to the initial spread of the Celtic language family across Western Europe39. This hypothesis suggests that early members of the Celtic language family (for example, Tartessian)40 initially developed from Indo-European precursors in Iberia and subsequently spread throughout the Atlantic Zone; before a period of rapid mobility, reflected by the Beaker phenomenon, carried Celtic languages across much of Western Europe. This idea not only challenges traditional views of a linguistic spread of Celtic westwards from Central Europe during the Iron Age, but also implies that Indo-European languages arrived in Western Europe substantially earlier, presumably with the arrival of farming from the Near East41.
The demographic reconstruction, which is based on direct calibration points, has major implications for understanding post-glacial human history in Europe. Our new estimate is incompatible with traditional views that the majority of present-day hg H lineages were carried into Central, Northern and Eastern Europe via a post-glacial human population expansion before the Holocene (12 kya)13. Our data complement a recent study, based on present-day mt genomes, which describes a pronounced population increase at ~7000 BC (interpreted as a Neolithic expansion into Europe), but followed by a slow population growth until the present day26. By including ancient DNA data from across the critical time points in question, our skyride plot corrects for missing temporal data and suggests substantial growth of hg H from the beginning of the Neolithic and continuing throughout the entire Neolithic period. This emphasizes the role of farming practices and cultural developments in the demographic expansions inferred in subsequent time periods, which have not yet been explored genetically.
Professor Chris Tyler-Smith of the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in Cambridge, UK, a researcher on the study, told BBC News: "Genetics can tell us about historical events. "By analysing the genetics of Ethiopia and several other regions we can see that there was gene flow into Ethiopia, probably from the Levant, around 3,000 years ago, and this fits perfectly with the story of the Queen of Sheba."
But the story of Queen Sheba is merely a legend, a "fable".
I mean, what happened? Do miracles exits?
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